G. (Germany). It is a highly integrated package, soft information Fuzzy, unofficial, intuitive, subjective, satisficing A process by which one seeks a solution that

A.G. (Germany). It is a highly integrated package, soft information Fuzzy, unofficial, intuitive, subjective, satisficing A process by which one seeks a solution that

nebulous, implied, or vague information, will satisfy a set of constraints. In contrast to optimiza-

softbots (intelligent software robots) Software agents tion, which seeks the best possible solution, satisficing

with learning capabilities,

simply seeks a solution that will work (well enough), software agents See softbots and intelligent agent (IA). scenario A statement of assumptions and configurations

software intelligent agent (IA) See softbots; intelligent concerning the operating environment of a particular

agent.

system at a particular time, spamming Indiscriminate distribution of e-mail mes- script A framelike structure representing a stereotyped

sages (junk e-mail),

sequence of events (e.g., eating at a restaurant), specific DSS (application) A system that actually search engines Program that finds and lists Web sites or

accomplishes a specific task. It is similar to application pages (designated by URLs) that match some user-

software in conventional MIS.

selected criteria, specific expert systems An expert system that advises segmentation Dividing markets into specific groups,

users on a specific issue,

self-evolving DSS A special type of intelligent DSS. speech recognition Translation of the human voice into self-organizing A neural network architecture that uses

individual words and sentences understandable by a unsupervised learning,

computer.

semantic network A knowledge representation method speech understanding An area of Al research that consisting of a network of nodes, representing concepts

attempts to allow computers to recognize words or or objects, connected by arcs describing the relations

phrases of human speech,

between the nodes, spreadsheet add-in Software programs designed to work semantic Web See semantic web services,

with spreadsheets, such as optimization or decision semantic Web services An extension of XML that allows

trees.

semantic information to be represented in web services, staff assistant An individual who acts as an assistant to a semiautomatic methods Knowledge acquisition meth-

manager.

ods that use computer-based tools to support knowl- static explanation In an ES, associating a fixed explana- edge engineers in order to facilitate the process,

tion text with a rule to explain the rule's meaning, semistructured decisions Decisions in which some

static models Models that describe a single interval of a aspects of the problem are structured and others are

situation.

unstructured. statistical methods Mathematical methodologies based sensitivity analysis A study of the effect of a change in

on probability and statistical theory, one or more input variables on a proposed solution,

status access A rapid access to current information, pro- shallow knowledge A representation of only surface-

vided by a computer,

level information that can be used to deal with very spe- sticky knowledge See tacit knowledge, cific situations,

stories Cases with rich information and episodes. shallow (surface) representation A model that does

Lessons may be derived from this kind of cases in a case not capture all the forms of knowledge used by

base.

experts in their reasoning. Contrasts with deep repre- strategic models Models that represent problems for the sentation.

strategic level (executive level) of management, shell Software for systems development that consists of

structured decisions Standard or repetitive decision situ- the basic structure of the system without the details

ations for which solution techniques are already avail- related to a specific problem. A complete expert system

able.

stripped of its specific knowledge. In rule-based sys- structured interview A systematic goal-oriented in- tems, it is a kind of expert system development tool con-

terviewing process that forces organized com- sisting of two standalone pieces of software—a rule-set

munication between the knowledge engineer and the

GLOSSARY

structured query language (SQL) A data definition and technology levels of DSS (or ES) The classification management language of relational databases. It front-

of software as basic development tools, integrated ends most relational DBMS,

development tools, and completed applications (DSS or subjective probability A probability estimated by a

ES).

manager without the benefit of a formal model, telecommuting An arrangement whereby employees

suboptimization An optimization-based procedure that

work at home, generally using a computer or a terminal does not consider all the alternatives for or impacts on

linked to their place of employment, an organization,

teleconferencing The use of telecommunication for a summation function See transformation function,

meeting held in different locations, supervised learning A method of training artificial

temporal reasoning The ability to reason about the time neural networks in which sample cases are shown to the

relationships between events,

network as input and the weights are adjusted to mini- threshold value A hurdle value for the output of a neu- mize the error in its outputs,

ron to trigger the next level of neurons. If an output

supply chain The flow of material, information, and

value is smaller than the threshold value, it will not be money, from the creation of raw materials to their final

passed to the next level of neurons, processing into a product (or service) and the delivery

throwaway prototyping A development methodology of the product to end-users. It includes all the necessary

that creates design prototypes to increase understand- organizational units, people, and procedures that sup-

ing of a system that is not clearly understood. These port the flow.

help the user learn about requirements and the final supply chain management (SCM) The activities

system to be deployed,

involved in managing supply chains: planning, organiz- time-series analysis A technique that analyzes historical ing, staffing, and control,

data over several time periods and then makes a fore- symbiotic DSS See Active DSS.

cast.

symbol A string of characters that represents a real- toolkit A collection of related software items that assist world concept,

a system developer,

symbol structures The meaningful relationships repre- top management support The presence of a top-level sented in an Al program,

manager as a system advocate; one of the most impor- symbolic processing The use of symbols, rather than

tant factors necessary for the introduction of any orga- numbers, combined with rules of thumb (or heuristics)

nizational change,

to process information and solve problems, topologies The type neurons are organized in a neural synapse The connection (where the weights are)

network.

between processing elements in a neural network, training set A set of data for inducing a knowledge synchronous Occurring at the same time,

model, such as a rule base or a neural network, system A set of elements considered to act as a single

transaction processing system (TPS) The system that goal-oriented entity,

processes an organization's routine, repetitive, basic system advocate The sponsor who initiates a project,

transactions such as ordering, billing, or paying, system analysis The investigation and recording of exist-

transformation (transfer) function In a neural network, ing systems and the conceptual design and feasibility

the function that sums and transforms inputs before a study of new systems,

neuron fires. The relationship between the internal acti- system builder A person responsible for the implemen-

vation level and the output of a neuron. tation of a system,

A test designed to measure the "intelli- system design The specification of appropriate hard-

Turing test

gence" of a computer,

ware and software components required to implement uncertainty In expert systems, a value that cannot be an information system,

determined during a consultation. Many expert systems system development life cycle (SDLC) A systematic

can accommodate uncertainty; that is, they allow the process for the effective construction of large informa-

user to indicate whether he or she does not know the tion systems.

answer.

tabu search A memory- and intelligence-based search uncertainty avoidance The omission of uncertainty from procedure for computer problem-solving,

a stochastic model,

tacit knowledge Knowledge that is usually in the domain uncertainty processing Estimating and aggregating of subjective, cognitive, and experiential learning. It is

uncertainties in rule inferencing. highly personal and hard to formalize,

uncontrollable variables Factors that affect the result of tactical models Models that represent problems for the

a decision but are not under the control of the decision- tactical level (mid-level) of management,

maker. They can be internal (e.g., related to technology

GLOSSARY

undocumented knowledge Knowledge that comes from virtual reality (VR) A three-dimensional interactive nondocumented sources, such as human experts,

technology that gives the user a sense of being physi- unstructured decisions Complex decisions for which no

cally present in a real world,

standard solutions exist, virtual reality markup language (VRML) An Internet unstructured (informal) interview An informal inter-

language for the Web that enables coding of three- view that acquaints a knowledge engineer with an

dimensional graphics,

expert's problem-solving domain, virtual workspace 'virtual workplace) The "place" unstructured problems See unstructured decisions,

where virtual meetings occur,

unsupervised learning A method of training artificial visual interactive modeling (VIM) Graphical animation neural networks in which only input stimuli are shown

in which systems and processes are presented dynami- to the network, which is self-organizing,

cally to the decision-maker. It enables visualization of user commitment The extent to which a user buys into

the results of different potential actions, an MSS. A critical success factor in developing MSS.

visual interactive simulation (VIS) A special case of user-developed DSS A DSS developed by one user or

VIM in which a simulation approach is used in the deci- by a few users in one department,

sion-making process,

user interface (or human-machine interface) The com- visual recognition The addition of some form of com- ponent of a computer system that allows bidirectional

puter intelligence and decision-making to digitized communication between the system and its user,

visual information, received from a machine sensor user interface management system (UIMS) See dialog

such as a camera,

generation; management system, visual simulation See visual interactive simulation, user interface objects In a Windows or other object-ori-

walk-through (or talk-through) In knowledge engineer- ented environment, menus, hot keys, buttons, and other

ing, a process whereby the expert walks (or talks) the icons used by the user interface,

knowledge engineer through the solution to a problem. user resistance The behavioral aspects of the refusal of

Web Abbreviation for World Wide Web. users to use new technology or of their attempts to sab-

Webcasting Customized broadcasting over the Web otage it.

where the information, as it becomes available, appears validation Determination of whether the right system

on the user's screen in a ticker-tape format (push tech- was built.

nology).

value chain The actual steps an item follows as it moves Web analytics The application of business analytics along the supply chain. See value chain model,

activities to Web-based processes, especially electronic value chain model A model developed by Michael

commerce.

Porter that describes how value is added when a prod- Web intelligence The application of business intelli- uct moves along the supply chain. There are primary

gence activities to Web-based processes, especially elec- activities that add value directly (e.g., manufacturing,

tronic commerce.

testing r storage) and secondary activities that support Web-mining Data mining on the Internet via intelligent the primary activities (e.g., accounting, personnel, engi-

agents. It involves information discovery, extraction, neering).

summarization, and generalization, value system In a firm's value chain, the suppliers and

weights Values assigned to each connection at the input other business partners and their supply chains,

to a neuron. Analogous to a synapse in the brain. verification Confirmation that a system was built to

Weights control the inflow to the processing elements in specifications (correctly),

neural networks,

virtual community See electronic communities what-if analysis Asking a computer what the effect of virtual corporation An organization in which people

changing some of the input data or parameters would work wherever and whenever it is appropriate. Also

be.

wizards Software agents that conduct routine tasks for virtual learning See distance learning,

called virtual enterprise.

users.

virtual organization (pureplay companies) A partner- World Wide Web A set of standard protocols for orga- ship of several organizations created for a specific

nizing, storing, and retrieving information on the accomplishment (usually short-term). Each partner

Internet. Also called the Web.

stays with a permanent organization and communicates and collaborates electronically.

mumm

"2002 Decision Analysis Survey" in OR/MS Today, June Akarte, M. M., N. V. Surendra, B. Ravi, and N. Rangaraj. 2002.