Check the literature and the Web to see how SCORE has evolved since this opening vignette was written. What additional features does it have? What are the annual savings? 7 .2 G R O U P DECISION-MAKING, COMMUNICATION, AND COLLABORATION

7. Check the literature and the Web to see how SCORE has evolved since this opening vignette was written. What additional features does it have? What are the annual savings? 7 .2 G R O U P DECISION-MAKING, COMMUNICATION, AND COLLABORATION

The Opening Vignette illustrates how computerized support can be provided to people who work effectively in groups for the benefit of their organizations. The SCORE sys- tem involves collaboration between groups at Chrysler and their vendors and also between groups within Chrysler. Other firms are using this model successfully. For

example, Johnson Controls has cut production costs by $20 million with a collaboration portal that integrates supplier applications (see Hall, 2002). The London insurance market, through collaboration, has cut office costs by 10 percent, and paper processes by over 30 percent; Timex has cut production-development cycles by up to 40 percent

(Konzer, 2002); and Lockheed Martin won a $19 billion contract on the basis of its col- laboration capabilities (Konicki, 2001). People make decisions, they design and manu- facture products, they develop policies and strategies, they design software, and so on. They collaborate and communicate—people perform groupwork. Some characteristics of groupwork are listed below:

• A group performs a task, sometimes decision-making, sometimes not. • Group members may be located in different places. • Group members may work at different times. • Group members may work for the same or for different organizations. • The group can be permanent or temporary. • The group can be at any managerial level or can span levels. • There can be synergy (process and task gains) or conflict in groupwork. • There can be gains and/or losses in productivity from groupwork. • The task may have to be accomplished very quickly. • It may be impossible or too expensive for all the team members to meet in one place. • Some of the needed data, information, or knowledge may be located in many

sources, several of which are external to the organization. • The expertise of non-team members may be needed.

When people work in teams, especially when the members are in different locations and may be working at different times, they need to communicate, collaborate, and

access a diverse set of information sources in multiple formats.

For groups to collaborate effectively, appropriate communication methods and technologies are needed. The Internet and its derivatives, intranets and extranets, are the platforms on which most communications for collaboration occur. The Internet

(World Wide Web or Web), a network of computer networks, supports interorganiza- tional decision-making through collaboration tools and access to data, information, and knowledge from inside and outside the organization. Intraorganizational net-

389 P A R T 111 ' COLLABORATION, COMMUNICATION, ENTERPRISE DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS, AND KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

nal Internet. People within an organization can work with Internet tools and proce- dures through enterprise information portals. Specific applications can include impor- tant internal documents and procedures, corporate address lists, e-mail, tool access, and software distribution. An intranet operates safely behind a company's firewall, which typically isolates it from inappropriate external access. A good example of an intranet application is the Osram Sylvania HR InfoNet (a portal) described in the Chapter 6 Opening Vignette. An extranet links a work group, functioning like an intranet for group members from several different organizations. Several automobile manufactur- ers have involved their suppliers and dealers in extranets to help them deal with cus- tomer complaints about their products. Other extranets are used to link teams together to design products, where several different suppliers must collaborate on design and manufacturing techniques. And extranets like the Covisint are used by entire indus- tries to link companies and suppliers (see the Opening Vignette; Kemp, 2001).

There have been many advances in Web-based collaborative design, as is described in the opening vignette. New tools are continually under development (see Anthes, 2000). Autodesk'sArchitectural Studio and CoCreate's OneSpace allow several design- ers to work simultaneously. Most major auto manufacturers are moving in this direc- tion because it substantially reduces the cost and time of bringing new models to mar- ket (see Konicki, 2002b, Gladwin, 2001). This market should be worth well over $100 billion by 2007 (see Konicki, 2002a, 2000b). For details on how GSS can enhance sys- tems analysis and design, see Lowry and Wilson (2000), and Maybury (2001).

Even in hierarchical organizations, decision-making is usually a shared process. A group may be involved in a decision or in a decision-related task, such as creating a short list of acceptable alternatives or choosing criteria for evaluating an alternative. The following activities and processes characterize meetings:

• A meeting is a joint activity engaged in by a group of people typically of equal or near-equal status. • The outcome of the meeting depends partly on the knowledge, opinions, and judgments of its participants. • The outcome of the meeting also depends on the composition of the group and on the decision-making process used by the group. • Differences in opinion are settled either by the ranking person present or, more often, by negotiation or arbitration.

Many computerized tools have been developed to provide group support. These tools are called groupware because their primary objective is to support groupwork. The work itself may be known as computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW).

(The literature uses the word cooperative, and we adhere to it, though collaborative

might be a more accurate term. For example, consider two or more groups involved in negotiations.) Groupware tools can be readily found via a Web search. Some notable ones include GroupSystems OnLine and MeetingRoom, Groove, NetMeeting, WebEx, and Place Ware. Some e-mail, chatroom, and instant messenger software exhibit group- ware features.

Telecommuting, teleconferencing, supply chain management, and electronic com- merce are all enabled through communication and collaboration technologies. It is almost impossible to be away from the office (home, dormitory, etc.) and not be con- nected. Distance learning is a fast-developing area of collaborative computing. And groupware can enhance creativity in the decision-making process.

C H A P T E R 7 COLLABORATIVE COMPUTING TECHNOLOGIES: GROUP SUPPORT SYSTEMS 3 6 7

Groups and groupwork (teams and teamwork) in organizations are proliferating. Consequently, groupware continues to evolve to support effective groupwork. For examples of effective groupware use in industry, see McGee and Murphy (2001), who describe the leading innovators in collaboration.

7 .3 C O M M U N I C A T I O N S U P P O R T

Communication is a vital element for decision support. Without communication, there is no

collaboration. Individual decision-makers must communicate with colleagues, experts, gov- ernment agencies, customers, vendors, business partners, and other interested parties. They also need data and information (and knowledge) from many locations around the globe. Groups of decision-makers must communicate, collaborate, and negotiate in their work. Most organizations would quickly become nonfunctional without their communication sys- tems. Virtual teams, especially those performing design work, require fast communication technology for success in their efforts (see Chapter 6). Effective e-commerce is possible only via modern Web-based communication technologies.

Modern information technologies, especially via the Web, provide inexpensive, fast,

capable, reliable means of supporting communications. (See DSS in Focus 7.1 for some unsupported aspects of communication.) Networked computer systems, like the Internet, intranets, and extranets, are the enabling platforms that support communication.

Historically, these systems began with the telegraph, the telephone, radio, and television. Technologies that followed built upon them. Within about 100 years, we have developed fax machines, electronic mail (e-mail), chat programs, newsgroups, listservs (electronic mailing lists), electronic bulletin boards, and inexpensive, effective desktop videoconferencing sys- tems (see DSS in Action 7.2, and Donston (2002) for effective uses and the benefits of videoconferencing).The use of desktop videoconferencing systems has grown dramatically in the wake of the events of September 11,2001 (see Cope, 2002; Goodridge, 2001b). Even

three-dimensional television systems have entered the market (Connolly, 2001). Most of these technologies operate on the Web/Internet. Because they are so widely used in modern enterprises and even at home, we will not discuss the details here. We next turn to collabo- rative technologies that include the latest communication developments of electronic meet- ing systems (EMS) and electronic conferencing systems and services, generally using the Internet for connecting decision-makers.

As Davids (1999) comments in reference to videoconferencing, the following advan- tages apply to all improved communications methods in organizations: (1) improving employee productivity, (2) involving more people in key decision-making, (3) blurring geographic boundaries, (4) creating a consistent corporate culture, and (5) improving employees' quality of life.

Communication may be considered a social matter in which negotiating differences in understanding among and between communicators is a primary business priority. It is important to understand how individuals interact in the decision-making process. Smoliar and Sprague (2002) consider communication along three dimensions—meaning, author- ity, and trust—based on the work of Anthony Giddens. These notions may soon open up

a rich understanding of how we communicate when working together.

3 6 8 P A R T 111 ' COLLABORATION, COMMUNICATION, ENTERPRISE DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS, AND KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT