11 Good language is usually measured when someone speaks properly and
politely in the context. Good language must contain dense meaning which is shown in beautiful and sweet words. On the other hand, bad language is
considered to be non-standard and wrongly used, which is sometime resulting in annoyance for the other person who hears it p. 222.
Besides, Jay 2000 classifies taboo words also as bad language p. 10.
From the explanation above, it can be said that language and society have relationship and influence on how language is used. Language can be reflected in
the language of a society. Moreover, the values that arise in a society also influence how they distinguish what is considered as good or bad things as seen in
language. There are good and bad languages including taboo words. Different society also has different vocabularies to address the bad languages including the
taboo words and swear words. Therefore, here the researcher will discuss further the bad languages in English society as portrayed in 12 Years a Slave movie.
2. The Concept of Swear Words
Using swear words or expletives is usually associated with breaking language rules, as most people would regard swearing as ―bad language‖. From
the explanation above also shows that taboo word considered as the part of bad language. There is a certain similarity which makes taboo and swear word share
the same definition. The similarity is the root of swear word which is also derived from taboo.
Karjalainen 2002 adds that ―swear words are a part of taboo words and
taboo words or words that refer to taboo are swear words. Although all swear words are taboo, not all taboo words are
swear words‖ p. 18. For example, the PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
12 word cannibalism is obviously taboo in some cultures, yet we do not have any
swear words to be used as swearing. Stapleton add s ―swearing is a linguistic
practice based on taboo, or that which is forbidden; expletives or swear words can be seen as referring to areas of social or cultural taboo, such as sex or bodily
functions‖ as cited in Locher Graham, 2010, p. 289. This statement is also supported by Ljung 2011 by stating the criteria.
Swearing is the use of utterances containing taboo words, means swear words are used to utter something taboo.
The taboo words are used in swearing do not retain their literal meaning. It means taboo words that are used with literal meaning cannot be regarded as
swearing. Swearing as formulaic language means formulaic language partly overlap with
grammaticalization, a process that brings about changes in lexis, phonology and syntax.
Swearing is emotional language. Its main function is to reflect, or seem to reflect
the speaker‘s feelings and attitudes. Ljung, 2011, p. 4
From these statements above, it can be said that swear words have close relationship with taboo words. In other words, swear words are the words which
are used by the speakers containing taboo words to reflect their feeling or attitude. According to David Crystal 2003,
―swearing refers to the strongly emotional use of a taboo words or phrase. In other words, swearing is the usage of single word,
such as shit, fuck, ass and the others are in short phrases like Goddamn it ‖ p. 23.
13 In line with Crystal, Allan and Burridge 2006 state
―taboos arise out of social constraints on t
he individual‘s behavior where it can cause discomfort, harm, or injury‖ p. 12. In short, taboo and swear words can affect someone‘s
behavior when he feels discomfort, harm, and injury.
To be more specific about swear words, Andersson and Trudgill 1990 say
that swearing can be defined as a type of language usage in which the expression: refers to something that is taboo andor stigmatized in the culture;
should not be interpreted literally; can be used to express strong emotions and attitudes.
Andersson and Trudgill, 1990, p. 53 In his book, Ljung 1984 also states:
The first important point in defining a swear word is that it should be used in a non
– technical sense, i.e. the word bitch, it will be non-swearing when it means a female dog, but it will be swearing when used to disparage a woman.
In line with the requirement of non-technicality, the word Jesus in the sentence
“The life and teachings of Jesus” is not a swear word. However, it becomes a swear word when it is used in an exclamatio
n like ―Jesus fucking Christ” p. 23.
In other words, a word or an expression should also be used in an emotional way to be classified as a swear word. Therefore, swear words cannot be translated
literally since it will lessen the true meaning of the words. Moreover, Beers- Fägersten
states ―the intention of uttering swear words can be explained by paying closer attention in the contexts
in which swearing takes place‖ as cited in Locher Graham, 2010, p. 291. Thus, to know the purposes and the reasons of
swearing, we need to see the contexts because it is highly context-dependent. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
14 There are some kinds of swear words and taboo words we can find in our
daily lives. Crystal 2003 explains: Swearing may be found in religious, legal, and the other formal contexts for
example someone who was swearing that he did not steal the money, ―I
swear I never steal the money ‖. There are also many examples of swear
words to express surprise, frustration, or anger, such as ass and fuck. The most common taboo expressions that involve
‗parts of the body‘ are fuck to have sexual intercourse
– the word is used both as a noun and as a verb and shit bodily excrement
– the word is used both as a noun and as an adjective p. 61.
Besides, George Carlin in his well-known monologue entitled Seven Words You Can‟t Say on TV explains why there are some words cannot be used on television.
Carlin proposes ―a simple list of words that we have decided not to use all the
time especially in a public; the words are shit, piss, cunt, fuck, cocksucker, motherfucker, and tits
” Pinker, 2007, p. 207 It can be said that swear words occur frequently in people daily
conversation. It causes swear words are considered as powerful words to express someone‘s feelings. When uttering swear words, it will give different effects for
the listeners. Compare the effects of saying: That meal was fantastic Versus That meal was fucking fantastic In the second case, the word fucking acts as an
intensifier which strengthens both the force of the adjective fantastic and the speaker‘s personal evaluation of the meal.
In addition, sometimes people do not know the meaning of swear words they are used. Justin gives an example that
―the word bitch is actually a powerful word that can be used as a noun, verb or adjective; it is almost universally
misunderstood by non-native English speakers. It can be playful, violent, or offensive
‖ as cited in Mohr, 2013, p. 174. The meaning of bitch does not refer to PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
15 its literal meaning which is female dog. However, it means an annoying or
unpleasant woman, a prostitute, and an empowered woman when someone uttered it emotionally.
Another example is the word motherfucker. In his 1970 book Seize the Time, Bobby Seale attributes the terms to slaves in the South of American:
Eldridge [Cleaver] ran it down to me once…he said, ―I‘ve seen and heard brothers use the word four and five times in one sentence and each time the
word had a different meaning and expression. Motherfucker actually comes from the old slave system and was a reference to the slave master who raped
our mothers, which society today doesn‘t want to face as a fact p. 232.
Montagu 2001 adds that ―the word motherfucker is used as a pejorative and
obscenity among Black people which is used as curse, expletive, epithet and intensifier
‖ p. 213. Hence, when it is used in the personal sense strongly antagonistic and conflicting emotions, it often provokes violent reactions.
According to psychiatrist Renatus Hartogs who has had much experience with juvenile delinquents in New York tells that
―the emotional dread surrounding the term motherfucker
is so strong‖ as cited in Montagu, 2001, p. 214. Wickman adds:
The word motherfucker first used in the late 19
th
century or around 1889 in a Texas court to call a defendant
―a Goddamned mother-fucking, bastardly son-of-a-bitch
” and it is usually considered highly offensive; it is rarely used in the literal senses of one who engages in sexual activity with
another person‘s mother, or his mother. Rather, it refers to mean,
despicable, or vicious person, or any frustrating situation as cited in Mohr, 2013, p. 171.
Besides these two examples, other swear words that often can be found in
everyday conversation are bastard, fuck, shit, damn, cunt, or asshole. Since swear words deal with their non-literal meanings and contain emotive functions, both the
16 speakers and the listeners should consider their real meaning. McEnery 2006 in
his book defines some meanings of swear words and their applications. He says: Damn is often used to curse and express annoyance, disgust, or surprise. It
can be addressed to someone or something. Bastard does not mean an illegitimate child, but it is used to swear at an unpleasant and despicable
person. Commonly it is addressed to a man. The word cunt is often used to address a woman or female genitalia. It has derogatory meaning. It is clear
that swear words have meaning which different from their literal meaning. pp. 99-100.
Hence, the speakers should consider the non-literal meaning of swear words and
to whom the words are addressed before saying them. The use of swear words also has different degree of their offensiveness.
Beers-Fägersten 2007 in her research classified swear words based on their level. She found:
The word nigger is the most offensive word among African-Americans since it is related to racial slurs. Among the swear words, the sexual terms
motherfucker and fuck are rated higher than bastard and bitch. Sexual anatomy, such as ass, asshole, shit, cunt, and dick which are rated higher
than damn and hell. p. 19. However, the offensiveness level of each swear word evolves and it is different
from 19
th
century swear words. Burnham states that in early America, profanity and obscenity belonged together in the category of taboo language. However,
―during 19
t
h
century and the late 19
th
century taboos words and swear words focused primarily on religious ideas and symbols, especially taking the Lord‘s
name in vain ‖ as cited in Mohr, 2013, p. 173. Therefore, the primarily targets of
offensive languages are the same based on the level of offensiveness, i.e. religion, sex, and bodily excretions bodily effluvia. The earliest swearing centred on the
ideas of gods, God, and religion Montagu 2001, p. 213. According to McEnery PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
17 2006, ―as the 19
th
century progressed, swear words also can fall from their popularity and some words change the function and some of them are evolved and
ameliorated. Vulgar terms related to sexual anatomy were also avoided and replaced because of the developing of the refinement of manners in the society
‖ p. 99.
In conclusion, people need to know the meaning of each swear words and the contexts when they are saying them. Different swear words will give different
meaning and the level of offensiveness.
a. The Types of Swear Words
Most of swearing and taboo expressions in English refer to religion or to the parts of the body and bodily process, especially those associated with sexual
activity or secretion process. There are several types of swear words. Batistella 2005 suggests four types of swear words, i.e. epithets, profanity, vulgarity, and
obscenity p. 72. 1
Epithet Epithet is characterized by the existence of several types of slurs. It includes
ethnic or racial slurs which have derogatory meaning toward a certain ethnic, race, community, or a particular group of people, e.g. nigger, yankee, kaffir, and so on.
Other references that are also included as epithet are connected to gender, sexuality, ones appearance, and disabilities like motherfucker. Using animal terms
also can be classified as epithet, i.e. dog, bitch or bullshit. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
18 2
Profanity Battistella says that profanity can be categorized as religious cursing
because it usually includes the foul-mouthed use of what is considered to be sacred. Moreover, Jay describes profanity as the expression involving the use of
religious terms in a profane, secular or uncaring manner. The aim of the speaker is ―not to vilify or denigrate God or anything connected with religion but it may be
used to express emotional response to certain motives ‖ as cited in Doyle, 2006,
pp. 2-3. The words that belong to this type are God, Jesus Christ, hell, damn, damnation, and goddamn it. Saying God or Jesus Christ as an expression of
surprise or annoyance is considered by many people to be blasphemy, mostly because one of the Ten Commandments says not to use God‘s name in vain
without substance or without relevance. Mbaya 2002 states that ―using swear
words must be considered because words that contain sacred functions can be tabooed if they are uttered in the context of sacred ceremonies
‖ p. 224. Saying Jesus Christ or Goddamn it can be so sacred and it is more likely showing our
disrespect to God if it is uttered outside the religious context. 3
Vulgarity Vulgarity and obscenity have the same reference especially to words or
expressions that contain sexual anatomy and excretory function or bodily effluvia in a rough manner. The words that belong to this type are ass, cunt and cock. The
word cunt for example is a vulgar term for female genitalia and it also used as a term of disparagement for a woman.
19 4
Obscenity It is a kind of expression that is prohibited from public use because it is
considered as lacking of morality since people mention sexual activity and bodily function which can generate disgust. The examples are fuck and shit. Usually
obscene words replace the position of other words in a sentence, e.g. “I need to
finish this shit as soon as possible” in which the word shit refers to ―assignment‖, for example. The word shit becomes the object of disgust. The literal meaning
actually is feces then it is transformed into swear words saying shit. In addition, Fairman states that
―the word fuck has various functions not only as a verb which means literally to copulate, but also can be as a noun, adjective, adverb,
intensifier, and interjection ‖ p. 44. Thus, this word has more tendencies to be
used as a reference to nonsexual things than to having sex. For example, the word fuck in
“It‟s fucking freezing” can be intensifier. Therefore, when these words are used, they will give different meanings depending on the contexts and purposes of
saying it.
b. The Purposes of Using Swear Words
Swearing is the process when someone seeks to use the power of something to chastise the object of one‘s swearing Montagu, 2001, p. 15. Most people
associate swearing with being angry or frustrated, but people swear for a number of reasons and in a variety of situations. In his research in 2007, Pinker states:
Swearing can be used for many different purposes within various situations. Swearing can carry powerful emotions - not only negative feelings but
also positive feelings. The effect of swearing is very much dependent on the PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
20 contexts in which it occurs. Therefore, a range of social factors has been
taken into account, such as social norms, cultures, relationships between speaker and listener, settings of physical environment and expectations
p. 23. The purpose of swearing is most commonly to express strong feelings,
especially feelings of anger. When we swear, we commonly use interjections. These can be a single word or short phrase or clause. Swearing also serves
multiple purposes in social interactions. According to Rothwell 1973, the principal purposes of using swear words are:
1 To Create Attention
People who use swear words want to attract attention from the society surrounding. They want to be the central attention among other people with the
purpose that people can know his condition and listen to him. Mc. Edward explains ―the speakers should gain the interest through the use of strong and
powerful language whose connotation can stimulate an instant reaction from the audience‖ as cited in Mc Guire, 1973, pp. 5-6. Therefore, people use swear
words which are believed to have power in gaining lis tener‘s attention because of
their strong connotation. They want other people to listen to them. In the public forum, attention is created through the use of shock rhetoric. Those who use this
way can gain attention by strong and passionate language whose connotations evoke an immediate emotional response from the listeners.
2 To Discredit Someone or Something
People who use swear words are not satisfied with the public image about a certain person, institution, government, etc. Therefore, they use swear word to
express their dislike about many things in reality that they assume are not PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
21 suitable with public opinion. Rothwell asserts that verbal obscenity communicates
a significant hatred for societys rule, a rebellion against power as well as impertinence for things that are considered sacred. In other words, people use
swear words because they want to express their disappointment about a reality that is different from what they have expected.
3 To Provoke
When someone swears, he or she may have a purpose to provoke a certain response like violation or anger from others. Rothwell says
―verbal obscenity can be the most efficient symbolic process offered to protester intended for inviting
chaotic reaction ‖ as cited in Fitzgerald, 2007, p. 17. It means that certain swear
word can bring violent when the speaker expended a certain respect from the listeners. When the listeners are not satisfied, it will make confrontation that can
be dangerous. 4
To Create Interpersonal Identification The fourth purpose is the creation of interpersonal identification. This
means that when someone utters swear word or verbal obscenity, it is used to identify or to create name calling for someone. For example, the Black Americans
or Black Panthers always called a policeman with an animal name, which is pig since 1785. Moreover, among African-Americans the word motherfucker can be a
sign of familiarity or friendliness. Thus, a normal greeting between two black Americans can be:
“Hi, you old motherfucker, where you been?” PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
22 5
To Provide Catharsis When somebody is angry, annoyed, or hurt physically and mentally, he
or she will show their feelings. The use of swear words or taboo words spontaneously conveys the emotional burst of the speaker in response to
something happens to him or her. If a person uses swear words to provide catharsis, it means he wants to express anger, surprise, pain, relief, or upset
because of somebody or something. Crystal 2003 adds that uttering swear words might ease the emotionally psychological burden of the swearer, which he claims
as ―excellent relief mechanism‖ p. 55. Freud has viewed swearing as a form of catharsis or emotional and tension release Locher Graham, 2010, p. 290.
c. Swear Words and Ethnicity
Ethnicity belongs to a group that shares the same characteristics, such as country of origin, language, religion, ancestry and culture. Ethnicity is a matter of
biological and historical fact and it is not changed by the culture in which a person grows up. According to Eriksen, the term ethnicity refers to the relationships
between groups whose the members consider themselves distinctive and these groups may be ranked hierarchically within a society as cited in Beers-Fägersten,
2007, p. 11. Ethnicity also refers to a person‘s hereditary membership in a distinct group
with historically based on sense of ethnic or racial identity. Each group possesses a unique subculture based on its historic experience, including a characteristic set
of value, symbol, and beliefs Ellis, 1999, p. 143. In accordance with language PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
23 use and ethnicity, Trudgill 2000 states that
―language has a setting and it consists of different dialects, accents, and vocabularies. The use of language can
indicate someone belongs to what race or ethnicity or number of races ‖
Trudgill, 2000, p. 39. Thus, different races or ethnicities will have different language styles, and of course including the swear words too.
It is often said that swearing in Germanic language like English uses only a handful of words. It may be true that only a few taboo concepts or words are used,
but these can be combined with other words used in fixed expression to make up a fairly elaborate system of swearing Ellis, 1999, p. 143. For example, the words
for feces are typical swear words in European languages i.e. shit English, scheisse German, skit Swedish, merde French, mierda Spanish, and so on.
In an Asian ethnic group, Chinese cannot be induced to swear by the Bible, the Americans will swear by anything in the heavens above or in the earth beneath
Foner, 1970, p. 275. According to Ellis 1999: European-descent Whites tend to be more restrained and keep emotional
intensify in check. However, any number of scholars has made reference to African-Americans Black people that they are emotional, more vigorous,
and expressive communication style. Each of these groups has conceptual convergence within their group boundaries about communication p. 147.
In addition, the African-Americans distinguish themselves by linguistic means which is Black English Vernacular Labov, 1972 in order to express ethnicity and
a sense of cultural distinctiveness Holmes, 1992. According to Beers-Fägersten 2007, African-
Americans‘ swearing behavior predominantly contain social swearing; it is occurring among interlocutors of close social distance and similar
24 social status. Meanwhile, the Americans can swear to everyone, not only to their
close social distance p. 39. Being more specific, Americans and African-Americans have had a long
history of race and ethnicity relations. People can see the conflicts between White- Americans and African-Americans. The differences between one race with
another sometimes create some problems. Racism is the belief that one group of people with a particular biological make up is superior to other groups. From 1619
to 1863, many white landowners especially in the southern states kept Africans or African-Americans as slaves. In this century and before then too, racism comes
out from the slave trade. Foner 1970 states that ―in the slave trade, many Blacks
can be bought and sold like things and they are seen as a thing that is less than a human. There were dislike and hatred
‖ p. 309. Many of the names that people used to call other people of another ethnic group were derogatory and offensive
that can be said as taboo words and swear words. For instance, the word niggers recalled great cruelty and oppression. Middleton and Pilgrim 2001 states:
Historically, the word nigger ridiculed all Blacks. It was a term of exclusion, a verbal reason for discrimination. Whether used as a noun, verb,
or adjective, it strengthened the stereotype of the lazy, stupid, dirty, worthless nobody. No other American surname carries as much purposeful
cruelty p. 3. In other words, the word nigger carries much hatred and disgust directed
toward Black Africans and African-Americans. The racial slur which is common in 18
th
until the late 19
th
century is nigger. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
25
3. 12 Years a Slave Movie
