CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A. Interactive Learning
1. Concept of Interactive Learning Before turning into interactive learning, someone should try to understand
what we mean method, technique, and approach. In describing methods, the difference between a philosophy of langua ge
teaching at the level of theory and principles, and a set of derived procedures for teaching a language, is central. In attempt to clarify this difference, a
scheme was proposed by the America n applied linguist Edward Anthony in 1963. He identified three levels of conceptualization and organization, which
he termed approach, method, and technique. The arrangement is hierarchical. The organizational key is that technique
carry out a method which is consistent with an approa ch. An approach is a set of correlative assumption dealing with the nature of
language teaching and learning. An approa ch is axiomatic. It describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught
Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of the langua ge material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon the
selected approach. An approach is axiomatic, a method is procedural. Within one approach, there can be many methods.
A technique is implementation – that which actually takes place in a classroom. It is a particular trick, stratagem, or contrivance used to accomplish
an immediate objective. Techniques must be consistent with a method, and therefore in harmony with an approach as well.
1
For Brown, the term method is best placed by the term pedagogy. The former implies a static set of procedures, whereas the letter suggests the
1
Jack C Richards and Theodore S. Rodgers, Approach and Methods in Language Teaching, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986, p. 15
dynamic interplay between teachers, learners, and instructional materials during the process of teaching and learning.
2
After two decades, Jack Richards revised and extended the original Anthony model. A method, according to Jack C. Richards, is an umbrella term
for the specification and interrelation of theory and practice. An approa ch defines those assumptions, beliefs, and theories about the nature of langua ge
learning that operate as axiomatic constructs or reference points and provide a theoretical foundation for what language teachers ultimately do with learners
in classrooms. Design specifies the relationship of theories of language and learning to both the form and function of instructional materials and activities
in instructional settings. Procedure comprises the classroom technique and practices that are consequences of particular approaches and designs.
3
At least three different theoretical views of language and the nature of language proficiency explicitly inform current approaches and methods in
language teaching. The first, and the most traditional of three, is the structural view, the view
that language is a system of structurally related elements for the coding of meaning. The target of language learning is seen to be the mastery of elements
of this system, which are generally defined in terms of phonological units e.g., phonemes, gra mmatical units e.g., clauses, phrases, sentences,
grammatical operations e.g., adding, shifting, joining, or transforming elements, and lexical items e.g., function words and structure words.
The second view of language is functional view, the view that the language is a vehicle for the expression of functional mea ning. The
communicative movement in language tea ching subscribes to this view of language. This theory emphasizes the semantic and communicative dimension
rather than merely the gra mmatical characteristics of language, and leads to a
2
Jack C. Richards and Willy A. Renandya, Methodology in Language Teaching, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002, p. 6
3
Jack C. Richards, The Context of Language Teaching, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985, p. 16-17
specification and organization of language teaching content by categories of meaning and function rather than by elements of structure and grammar.
The third view of language can be called interactional view. It sees language as a vehicle for the realization of interpersona l relations and for the
performance of social interactions between individuals. Language is seen as a tool for the creation and maintenance of social relations. Areas inquiry being
drawn on in the development of interactional approaches to language tea ching includes interaction analysis, conversation analysis, and ethnomethodology.
Interactional theories focus on the pattern of moves, acts, negotiation, and interaction found in conversational exchange. Language teaching contents,
according to this view, may be specified and organized by patterns of exchange and interaction or may be left unspecified, to be shaped by the
inclinations of learners as interactors.
4
One of the most comprehensive lists of Communicative Langua ge Teaching features ca me some time ago from Finocchiaro and Brumfit. They
described that interactive learning, cooperative learning, learner -centered classes, content-centered education, whole language, etc, included into what
called with principle of Communicative Language Tea ching.
5
From the statements above, the writer concludes that the interactive learning is an approach that is the principle of Communicative Langua ge
Teaching while interactive language tea ching means elicitation of willing student participation and initiative. It requires a high degree of indirect
leadership, along with emotional maturity perceptiveness, and sensitivity to the feeling of others. In interaction language teaching, comprehension and
production retrieve their normal relationship as interactive duo.
6
4
Richards and Rodgers, Approach and Methods…, p. 17
5
H. Douglas Brown, Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language pedagogy, Second Edition, New York: Longman, 2001, p. 85
6
Wilga M. River, Interactive LanguageTeaching, Sixth Edition, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993, p. 9
2. Definition of Interactive Learning Interaction is an important word for language teaching. In the era of
Communicative Language
Teaching, interaction is,
the heart of
communication is all about. According to H. Douglas, interaction is the collaborative exchange of
thoughts, feelings, or ideas between two or more people, resulting in a reciprocal effect on ea ch other. Theories of communicative competence
emphasize the importance of interaction as human beings use language in various contexts to negotiate meaning, or simply stated, to get an idea out of
one person s hea d and into the head of another person and vice versa.
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In addition, according to River, interaction is the situation when students achieve facility in using a language when their attention focuses on conveying
and receiving authentic messages. It is the messages that contain information of interest to speaker and listener in a situation of importance o f both.
Interaction involves not just expression of one s own ideas but comprehension of those of others. One listens to others; one respond directly or indirectly;
other listen and respond.
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Interaction is also an affective, temperamental matter, not merely a question of someone saying something to someone.
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From the explanation above, interactive learning can be defined as an approach that brings students to be more communicative by exchanging their
thought, feeling, and ideas where the situation focused on conveying and receiving authentic messages.
3. Interactive Learning Principles Before turning about intera ctive learning principles, there are some
principles of second language learning that should be known. The second language learning principles are:
10
7
Brown, Teaching by Principles…, p. 165
8
River, Interactive Language…, p. 4
9
River, Interactive Language…, p. 10
10
Brown, Teaching by Principles…, p. 54-70
a. Cognitive Principle It is relate mainly to mental and intellectual functions.
1 Automaticity Efficient second language learning involves a timely movement of
the control of a few language forms into the automatic processing of a relatively unlimited number of language forms. Over analyzing
language, thinking too much about its forms, and consciously lingering on rules of language all tend to impede this graduation to automaticity.
2 Meaningful Learning Meaningful learning will lead toward better long-term retention
than rote learning. 3 The Anticipation of Reward
Human being is universally driven to act or behave by the anticipation of some sort of reward-tangible or intangible, short term-
that will ensue as a result of the behavior. 4 Intrinsic Motivation
The most powerful rewards are those that are intrinsically motivated within the learner. Because the behavior stems from needs,
wa nts, or desires within oneself, the behavior itself is self-rewarding; therefore, no externally administered reward is necessary.
5 Strategic Investment Successful mastery of the second language will be due to a large
extent to a learner s own personal “investment” of time, effort, and attention to the second language in the form of an individualized
battery of strategies for comprehending and producing the language. b. Affective Principle
The principles are chara cterized by a large proportion of emotional involvement.
1 Langua ge Ego As huma n beings learn to use a second language, they also develop
a new mode of thinking, feeling, and acting-a second identity. The new language ego, intertwined with the second language, can easily create
within the reader a sense of fragility, defensiveness, and a rising of inhibition.
2 Self-Confidence Learners belief that they indeed are fully capable of accomplishing
a task is at least partially a factor in their eventual success in attaining the task.
3 Risk-Taking Successful language learners, in their realistic appraisal of them
selves as vulnerable beings, yet capable of accomplishing tasks, must be willing to become ga mbler in the ga me of language, to attempt to
produce and to interpret language that is a bit beyond their absolute certainty.
4 The Language-Culture Connection Whenever teacher teaches a langua ge, she or he also teaches a
complex system of cultural customs, values, and wa ys of thinking, feeling, and acting.
c. Linguistics Principle Language learning and teaching center on language itself and on how
the learners deal with these complex linguistics systems. 1 The Native Language Effect
The native language of learners exerts a strong influence on the acquisition of the target language system. While that native system
will exercise both facilitating and interfering effects on the production and comprehension of the new language, the interfering effects are
likely to be the most salient.
2 Inter-language Second language learners tend to go t hrough a systematic or quasi-
systematic developmental process as they progress to full competence in the target language. Successful interlanguage developmental is
partially a result of utilizing feedback from others. 3 Communicative Competence
Given that communicative competence is the goal of a language classroom, instruction needs to point toward all its components:
orga nizational, pragmatic, strategic, and psychomotor. Communicative goals are best achieved by giving due attention to language use and not
just usage, to fluency and not just accuracy, to authentic language and contexts, and to students eventual need to apply classroom learning to
previously unrehearsed contexts in the real world. Most of the twelve principle listed form foundation stones for structuring a
theory of interaction in the language classroom. Consider the following selected relationship.
Automatically: True human interaction is best accomplished when vocal attention is on meaning and messages and not on grammar and other
linguistics forms. Learners are thus freed from keeping language in a controlled mode and can more easily proceed to automatic modes of
processing. Intrinsic motivation: As students become engaged with each other in
speech acts of fulfillment and self-actualization, their deepest drives are satisfied. And as they more fully appreciate their own competence to use
language, they can develop a system of self-reward. Strategic investment: Interaction requires the use of strategic langua ge
competence both to make certain decisions on how to stay or write or interpret language, and to make repairs when communication pathways are blocked.
The spontaneity of interaction discourse requires judicious use of numerous strategies for production and comprehension.
Risk-taking: Interaction requires the risk of failing to produce intended meaning, of failing to interpret intended meaning on the part of someone
else, of being laughed at, of being shunned or rejected. The reward, of course, are great and worth the risks.
The language-culture connection: The cultural loading of interactive speech as well as writing requires that interlocutors be thoroughly versed in
the cultural nuances of language. Interlanguage: The complexity of interaction entails a long developmental
process of a cquisition. Numerous errors of production and comprehension will be a part of this development. And the rule of teacher feedback is crucial to
the developmental process. Communicative competence: All of the elements of communicative
competence grammatical, discourse, sociolinguistic, pragmatic, and strategic are involved in human interaction. All aspects must work together for
successful communication to take place.
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4. Teacher s Roles in Interactive Learning Teacher can play many roles in the course of teaching. Just as parents are
called upon to be many things to their children, teacher cannot be satisfied with only one role.
The roles of teacher are:
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a. The Teacher as Controller This is a role that is sometimes expected in traditional education
institutions and always in charge of every moment in the classroom. As the controller, teacher determines what the students do, when they should
speak and what language forms they should use. They can often predict many students responses because everything is mapped out ahea d of time,
with no leeway for divergent paths. In some respects, such control may sound admirable. But for interaction to take place, the teacher must create
11
Brown, Teaching by Principles…, p. 166
12
Brown, Teaching by Principles…, p. 167-168
a climate in which the freedom of expression is given over to students to make it impossible to predict everything that they will say and do.
b. The Teacher as Director According to Oxford Adva nce learner s dictionary, director is a person
who directs or controls a group of people working together or an institution.
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The role of tea cher in this wa y is directs a course and alwa ys enable students to engage in the real-life drama of improvisation as ea ch
communicative event brings its own uniqueness. c. The Teacher as Manager
Teacher s role is this way is someone who plans lesson, modules, and courses. She or he also structures the larger, longer segments of classroom
time, but allows each individual player to be creative within those parameters.
d. The Teacher as Facilitator Teacher helps them to clear away roadblocks, to find shortcuts, and to
negotiate rough terrain. The facilitating role requires that the tea cher step away from the ma nagerial or directive role and allow students with
teacher s guidance and gentle prodding to find their own pathways to success.
e. The Teacher as Resources The implication of the resource role is that the students take the
initiative to come to teacher. T he teachers are available for advice and counsel when the students seek it.
According to Showstack, there are only two things that are clearly provided by the teacher: 1 exposure to the target language and 2 the
motivation to continue studying the language.
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13
A S Hornby, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, Fifth Edition, New York: Oxford University Press, 1995, p. 326
14
Robert J. Di Pietro, Strategic Interaction: Learning Language Through Scenario, Third Edition, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990, p. 13
In the language classroom is often structured around the simple fact that the teacher s role is that expert, evaluator and, no matter how informal,
ultimately the one in control.
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5. Students Roles in Interactive Learning Breen and Candlin describe the learner s roles within a communicative
methodology in the following term. The role of learner as negotiator - between the self, the learning process,
and the object of learning – emerges from and interacts with the role of joint negotiator within the group and within the classroom procedures and
activities which the group undertakes. The implication for the learner is he should contribute as much as he gains, and thereby learn in an
interdependent wa y.
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6. Pattern of Learning Style Observation has shown that the most common type of classroom
interaction is that known as „IRF - „Initiation-Response-Feedba ck : the teacher initiates an exchange, usually in the form of a question, one of the
students answers, the teacher gave feedba ck assessment, correction, comment, initiates the next question-and so on.
Interaction patterns are:
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a. Group work Students work in small group on tasks that entail interaction:
conveying information, for example, or group decision-making. The teacher walks around listening, intervenes little if at all.
It is a generic term covering a multiplicity of techniques in which two or more students are assigned a task that involves collaboration and self
initiated language. Pair work is simply group work in groups of two. It is
15
George Yule and Wayne Gregory, “Survey Interview for Interactive Language Learning”, in ELT Journal: An international Journal for Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages,
volume 432, April 1989, p. 142
16
Richards, The Context of Language…, p. 23
17
Penny Ur, A Course in Language Teaching: Teaching and Theory, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996, p. 227-228
also important to note that group work usually implies “small” group work, that is, students in groups or perhaps six or fewer.
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It fosters learner responsibilit y and independence, can improve motivation and contribute to a feeling of cooperation and warmth in the
class. These potential advantages are not, however, always realized. Teachers fear they may lose control, that there may be too much noise, that
their students may over-use their mother tongue, do the task badly or not at all: and their fears are often well founded. Some people - both learners and
teachers – dislike a situation where the tea cher cannot constantly monitor learner language.
The success of group work depend to some extent on the surrounding social climate, and on how habituated the class is to using it; and also, of
course, on the selection of an interesting and stimulating tasks whose performance is well within the ability of the group. But it also depends,
more immediately, on effective and careful organization.
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1 Advantages of group work a Group work generates interactive language.
Group work helps to solve the problem of classes that are too large to offer speak. Closely related to the sheer quantity of output
made possible through group work is the variety and quality of interactive learning.
b Group work offers an embracing affective climate. The second important advantage offered by group work is the
security of a smaller group of students where each individual is not so starkly on public display, vulnerable to what the student may
perceive as criticism and rejection. A further affective benefit of small group is an increase in
student motivation. With Maslow s “securitysafety” level satisfied
18
Brown, Teaching by Principles…, p. 177
19
Ur, A Course in Language…, p. 232-233
through the cohesiveness of the small group, learners are thus freed to pursue higher objectives in their quest for success.
c Group work promotes learner responsibility and autonomy. Group work places responsibility for action and progress upon
each of the members of the group somewhat equally. It is difficult to hide in a small group.
d Group work is a step toward individualizing instruction. Each student in a classroom has needs and abilities that are
unique. Usually the most salient individual difference that you observe is a range of proficiency levels across your class and, even
more specially, differences among students in their speaking, listening, writing, and reading abilities.
2 Disadva ntages of group work: a It is likely to be noisy.
Not all students enjoy it since they would prefer to be the focus of the tea cher s attention rather than working with their peers.
b Individuals may fall into group roles that become fossilized, so that some are passive whereas others may dominate.
c Groups can take longer to organize than pairs; beginning and ending group work activities – especially where people move
around the class – can take time and be chaotic.
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b. Closed-ended teacher questioning „IRF Only on „right response gets approved. Sometimes cynically it is
called the game. c. Individual work
The teacher gives a task or set of tasks, and students work on them independently, the teacher walks around monitoring and assisting where
necessary.
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Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching, Harlow: Longman,2001, third edition, p. 117-118
1 Advantages of individual learning: a It allows teachers to respond to individual student differences in
terms of pace of learning, learning style, and preferences. b It is likely to be less stressful for students than performing in a
whole-class setting or talking in pairs or groups. c It can develop learner autonomy and promote skills of self -
reliance and investigation over tea cher-dependence. d It ca n be a way of restoring pea ce and tranquility to a noisy and
chaotic situation. 2 Disadvantages of individual learning;
a It does not help a class develop a sense of belonging. It does not encourage cooperation in which students ma y be able to help and
motivate each other. b When combined with giving individual students different tasks, it
means a great deal more thought and materials preparation than whole-class teaching involves.
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d. Choral responses The teacher gives a model which is repeated by all the class in the
chorus, or gives a cue which is responded to in chorus. e. Collaboration
Students do the same sort of tasks as in „individual work , but work together, usually in pairs, to try to achieve the best results they can. The
teacher may not intervene. Note that this is different from „Group work , where the tasks itself necessitates interaction.
f. Student initiates, tea cher answers For exa mple, in a guessing game: the students think of questions and
the teacher responds; but the teacher decides who asks. g. Full-class interaction
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Harmer, The Practice of English…, p. 115-116
The students debate a topic or do a language task as a class; the tea cher may intervene occasionally, to stimulate participation or to monitor.
h. Teacher talk This may involve some kind of silent response, such as writing from
dictation, but there is no initiative on the part of the students. i. Self-access
Students choose their own learning tasks, and work autonomously. j. Open ended tea cher questioning
There are a number of possible „right answers, so that more students answer each cue.
B. Narrative Text
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