affecting someone .
41
For example: “Shoot her”
One may say of this utterance that, in appropriate circumtances, it had the illocutionary force of variously, ordering, arguing, advising, the
address to shoot her. But the perlocutionary effect of persuading, forcing, or frightening the addressee into shooting her.
In other words, perlocutionary act is the act that has an influence or effect on the partner or who heard the speech. In perlocutionary act, the
speaker hopes to get the attention of the hearer about what he conveys. This is often experienced by every person with different goals and
interests, such as the aim to apologize, pay for attention, understand person situation and so on.
E. Classification of Illocutionary Acts
Many theories of speech acts have been described and classified by the linguists especially by Austin and Searle who concern on analyzing the
speech act. Austin suggested that the illocutionary act always contains explisit meaning throughthe use of performative sentences. Austin
categorized the illocutionary acts into five basic categories of verdictive, expositive, exersitive, commisive and behabitive.
42
Austin‟s five classes, a brief explanation of each, and a few examples of each are as follows:
41
F.X. Nadar, op. cit, p. 15.
42
John R. Searle, Expression and Meaning: Studies in The Theory of Speech Acts, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979, p. 1.
1. Verdictives: acts that consist of delivering a finding, e.g., acquit, hold as
a matter of law, read something as, etc.
43
2. Exercitives: acts of giving a decision for or against a course of action,
e.g., appoint, dismiss, order, sentence, etc.
44
3. Commissives: acts whose point is to commit the speaker to a course of
action, e.g., contract, give one’s word, declare one’s intention, etc.
45
4. Behabitives: expressions of attitudes toward the conduct, fortunes, or
attitudes of others, e.g., apologize, thank, congratulate, welcome, etc.
46
5. Expositives: acts of expounding of views, conducting of arguments, and
clarifying, e.g., deny, inform, concede, refer, etc.
47
Searle criticized Austin for operating with overlapping criteria. As we saw in the preceeding section, Searle finds fault with Austin taxonomy of
speech act for various reason inconsistency, incompleteness, and so on. The five category that Searle ends up establishing are representatives or
assertives, directives,
commisives, expressives,
declarations or
declaratives.
48
I will discuss the categories in this order: 1.
Representatives These speech acts are assertions about a state of affairs in the world
hence they are also called assertives; Leech 1983:128, and thus carry the values „true‟ or „false‟. This is their „point‟; as to fit, they should of course,
43
Jerrold Saddock, The Handbook of Pragmatics, Blackwell: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2004, p. 64.
44
Ibid.
45
Ibid.
46
Ibid.
47
Ibid.
48
Jacob L. Mey, op. cit, p. 119-120.
match the world in order to be true.
49
It is including asserting, stating, claiming, concluding, and reporting.
In performing this type of speech act, the speaker represents the world as he or she believes it is, they make an utterance according to what
they believe and in accordance with the fact. E.g. The Berlin Wall came down in 1989.
50
The example above is entered to stating. 2.
Directives These are kinds of speech acts in which the speaker wants the
hearer to do something. They express the speaker‟s desire to the hearer to do something. Examples of directives are action such as advising,
commanding, ordering, questioning, and requesting. In using a directive, the speaker intends to to obtain some future action of the hearer. E.g.
Close the door
51
3. Commisives
These are kinds of speech acts that require the speaker to perform some future actions. That expresseed
the speaker‟s desire to do something. Examples of commisives are actions such as offering, pledging, promising,
refusing, and thretening. E.g . I‟ll give you money tomorrow.
52
4. Expressives
These are kinds of speech acts that express a psychological attitude or state of speaker such as exitement, sadness, and likesdislikes.
49
Ibid.
50
Yan Huang, op. cit, p. 1004.
51
Ibid.
52
Ibid.
Examples of expressives are actions such as apologizing, blaming, congratulating, praising, and thanking. E.g. Well done, Elizabeth
53
5. Declaratives
These are kinds of speech acts that cause immediatechanges in some situations, in performing this type of speech act, the speaker brings
about changes in the world; the propositional content of the speaker‟s utterance changes the state of hearer in reality. Examples of declaratives
are actions such opening a bridge, declaring war, excommunicating, firing from employment, and nominating a candidate. E.g. I object, Your
Honor.
54
So, we can take the conclusion based on the explanation above. First, representative is a speech that binding the speakers of the truly
utterance. Second, directive is binding speaker to take the actions mentioned in the speech. Third, commissive is the act that binding the
speaker to do somethingin the future. Fourth, expressive is the act that expresses feelings of the speaker. And the last, declarative is the act which
may cause new situations or status.
F. Direct and Indirect Speech
