Learning Strategies THEORETICAL REVIEW 1. Vocabulary
Table 2.5 Language Learning Strategies Oxford: 1990:18-21
Direct strategies
I.Memory strategies
A.Creating mental linkages
1.Grouping 2.Associatingelaborating
3.Practicing new words into a context B.Applying images
and sound 1.Using imagery
2.Semantic mapping 3.Using keywords
4.Representing sounds in memory C.Reviewing well
1.Structured reviewing D.Employing action
1.Using physical response or sensation 2.Using mechanical techniques
II.Cognitive strategies
A.Practicing 1.Repeating
2.Formality practicing with sounds and writing systems
3.Recognizing and using formulas and patterns
4.Recombining 5.Practicing naturalistically
B.Receiving and sending messages
1.Getting the idea quickly 2.Using resources for receiving and sending
messages C.Analyzing and
reasoning 1.Reasoning deductively
2.Analyzing expressions 3.Analyzing contrastively across languages
4.Translating 5.Transferring
D.Creating structure for input and
output 1.Taking notes
2.Summarizing 3.Highlighting
III.Compensatio n strategies
A.Guessing intelligently
1.Using linguistic clues 2.Using other clues
B.Overcoming limitations in
speaking and writing
1.Switching to the mother tongue 2.Getting help
3.Using mime or gesture 4.Avoinding communication partially or
totally 5.Selecting the topic
6.Adjusting or approximating the message 7.Coining words
8.Using a circumlocution or synonym Indirect
strategies I.Metecognitive
strategies A.Centering your
learning 1.Overviewing and linking with already
known material 2.Paying attention
3.Delaying speech production to focus on listening
B.Arranging and planning your
learning 1.Finding out about language learning
2.Organizing 3.Setting goals and objectives
4.Identifying the purpose of a language task purposeful
listeningreadingspeakingwriting
5.Planning for a language task 6.Seeking practice opportunities
C.Evaluating your learning
1.Self-monitoring 2.Self-evaluating
II.Affective strategies
A.Lowering your anxiety
1.Using progressive relaxation, deep breathing, or meditation
2.Using music 3.Using laughter
B.Encouraging yourself
1.Making positive statements 2.Taking risks wisely
3.Rewarding yourself C.Taking your
emotional 1.Listening to your body
2.Using a checklist
temperature 3.Writing a language learning diary
4.Discussing your feeling with someone else III.Social
strategies A.Asking questions
1.Asking for clarification or verification 2.Asking for correction
B.Cooperating with others
1.Cooperating with peers 2.Cooperating with proficient users of the
new language C.Empathizing with
others 1.Developing cultural understanding
2.Becoming aware of others‘ thoughts and feelings
From table 2.5 it shows that language learning strategies are possibly conducted for four skills listening, reading, writing, and speaking.
b. Vocabulary Learning Strategies VLS This sub-topic of the study is intended to provide theories of Vocabulary
Learning Strategies VLS. It comprises the definitions of VLS and four different types of VLS proposed by Schmitt, Gu and Johnson, Catalan, and also Nation.
1 Definition of Vocabulary Learning Strategies VLS Some proponents have derived the definitions of Vocabulary Learning
Strategies VLS. VLS basically are designed to assist learners in order to control manage their vocabulary learning to achieve optimal goals. Schmitt 1997:2003
illustrates VLS as the process of obtaining, storing, retrieving, and using of lexical items. Being in line with Schmitt, Catalan 2003 describes a more detailed VLS.
VLS is defined as a process or strategy which provide certain steps taken by learners to learn vocabulary:
‗1 to find out the meaning of unknown words, 2 to retain them in long-term memory, 3 to recall them at will, and 4 to use them in
oral or wr itten mode‘ Catalan: 2003: 56.
2 Types of Vocabulary Learning Strategy VLS The experts generally provide some similar and different characteristics
between one and other strategies in that they basically have the same principles, yet they view them in quite different ways.
a Schmit t‟s Taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies
Schmitt 2000 : 207 compiled a list of VLS categorized according to the following two purposes: 1 strategies which
discover a new word‘s meaning; and 2 strategies which
consolidate a word once it has been encountered. Schmitt‘s taxonomy of VLS includes a variety of different strategies and all important skills
in the learner‘s process. The first strategies are determination strategies. Determination strategies
are individual learning strategies, which help learners to discover the meaning of words by themselves with no assistance from peers, such as guessing the words
from the context Schmitt, 2000, 207. The next strategies are called social strategies. Social strategies engage learners in interaction with their peers, and this
helps them to learn from each other, such as observing their classmates and asking their teacher for the meaning of a word Schmitt, 2000, 207. The third strategies
are memory strategies. Memory strategies are strategies, which engage learners in learning the new word through mental processing by associating their existing or
background knowledge with the new word Schmitt, 2000, 207. For example, if the learner comes across the word ―cat‖, the learner can group the word ―cat‖
under the category of a four-legged animal because the learner already knows the image of these four-legged animals from hisher background knowledge. Another
example is that the learner sees a particular action from a kind of sports on TV
and guesses the name of the sport be-cause heshe already remembers the actions associated with that sport. The fourth strategies are cognitive strategies. Cognitive
strategies do not engage learners in mental processing but is more mechanical. An example is repeating the pronunciation of new words Schmitt, 2000. The last
strategies are metacognitive strategies. Metacognitive strategies are strategies relating to processes involving monitoring, decision-making, and evaluation of
one‘s progress. Metacognitive strategies help the learner in determining appropriate VLS for learning new words Schmitt, 2000.
Table 2.6 A Taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies Schmitt, 2000, 207 Strategy Group
Use Helpful
Strategies for the discovery of a new word‘s meaning DET Analyze part of speech
DET Analyze affixes and roots DET Check for L1 cognate
DET Analyze any available pictures or gestures DET Guess from textual context
DET Bilingual dictionary DET Monolingual dictionary
DET Word lists DET Flash cards
SOC Ask teacher for an L1 translation SOC Ask teacher for paraphrase of synonym of new word
SOC Ask teacher for a sentence including the new word SOC Ask classmates for meaning
SOC Discover new meaning through group work activity 32
15 11
47 74
85 35
- -
45 42
24 73
35 75
69 40
84 73
95 77
- -
61 86
78 65
65
Strategy Group Use
Helpful
Strategies for consolidating a word once it has been encountered SOC Study and practice meaning in a group
SOC Teacher checks students‘s flash cards or word lists for accuracy SOC Interact with native speakers
MEM Study word with a pictorial representation of its meaning MEM Image word‘s meaning
MEM Connect word to a personale experience MEM Associate the word with its coordinates
MEM Connect the word to its synonyms and antonyms MEM Use semantic maps
MEM Use ‗scales‘ for gradable adjectives MEM Peg method
MEM Loci methhod MEM Group words together to study them
MEM Group words together spatially on a page MEM Use new words in sentences
MEM Group words together within a storyline MEM Study the spelling of a word
MEM Study the sound of a word MEM Say new word aloud when studying
MEM Image word form MEM Underline initial letter of the word
MEM Configuration MEM Use Keyword Method
MEM Affixes and roots remembering MEM Part of speech remembering
MEM Paraphrase the word‘s meaning MEM Use cognate in study
30 3
-
- 50
37 13
41 9
16 -
- -
- 18
- 74
60 69
32 -
- 13
14 30
40 10
51 39
-
- 38
62 54
88 47
62 -
- -
- 82
- 87
81 91
22 -
- 31
61 73
77 34
Strategy Group Use
Helpful
MEM Learn the words of an idiom together MEM Use physical action when learning a word
MEM Use semantic feature grids
COG Verbal repetition COG Written repetition
COG Word lists COG Flash cards
COG Use the vocabulary section in your textbook COG Listen to tape of word lists
COG Put English labels on physical objects COG Keep a vocabulary notebook
MET Use English-language media songs, movies, newcasts MET Testing oneself with word class
MET Use spaced word practice MET Skip or pass new word
MET Continue to study word overtime 48
13 -
76 76
54 25
48 -
- -
- -
- 41
45 77
49 -
84 91
67 65
76 -
- -
- -
- 16
87
b Gu and Johnson‟s Taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies
Gu and Johnson 1996 propose second language L2 vocabulary learning strategies as metacognitive, cognitive, memory and activation strategies.
Metacognitive strategies include selective attention and self-initation. Cognitive strategies cover guessing, using dictionaries, and note taking. Memory strategies
deal with rehearsal and encoding association. Finally, activation involves using
new words in different context. Those four strategies are defined further in the following paragraphs.
Metacognitive strategies consist of selective attention and self-initiation strategies. Foreign and second language learners who employ selective attention
strategies know which words are important for them to learn and are essential for adequate comprehension of a passage. Learners employing self-initiation
strategies use a variety of means to make the meaning of vocabulary items clear. Cognitive strategies in Gu and Johnson‘s taxonomy entail guessing
strategies, skillful use of dictionaries and note-taking strategies. Learners using guessing strategies draw upon their background knowledge and use linguistic
clues like grammatical structures of a sentence to guess the meaning of a word. Memory strategies are classified into rehearsal and encoding categories.
Word lists and repetition are instances of rehearsal strategies. Encoding strategies encompass such strategies as association, imagery, visual, auditory, semantic, and
contextual encoding as well as word structure such as analyzing a word in terms of prefixes, stems, and suffixes.
Activation strategies include those strategies through which the learners actually use new words in different contexts. For instance, learners may set
sentences using the words they have just learned. All these suggested strategies can be summarized in a table as follows:
Table 2.7 Gu
Johnson‟s
Categories of Vocabulary Learning Strategies 1996 Strategies
Metacognitive Cognative
Memory Activation
Selective attention:
identifying essential words
for comprehension
Self-initation: Using a variety of
means to make the meaning of
words clear Guessing:
activating background
knowledge, using linguistic items
Use dictionaries Note taking
Rehearsal: Word lists,
repetition,etc
Encoding association
imagery, visual, auditory, etc
Using new words in different
context
c Catalan‟s Taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies
Catalan 2003 defines learners‘ vocabulary strategies based on their sexes and also identifies the ten most frequently used strategies as presented in the table
2.8.
Table 2.8 The Ten Most Frequently Used Vocabulary Strategies Catalan, 2003:63 Strategy
Rank Percentage
Male Female
Male Female
Use a bilingual dictionary D 1
1 83,2
85,8 Take notes about the word in class C
2 2
78,1 84,8
Guess from textual context D 3
3 74,9
80,08 Ask teacher for an L1 translation D
4 5
72,8 73,2
Ask classmates for meaning D 5
4 69,2
74,8 Analyze part of speech D
6 8
64,5 71,5
Connect the word to cognates C 7
7 59,9
69,9 Use English language media C
8 9
55,9 62,6
Say word aloud when studying C 9
6 55,8
71,5 Form image of word‘s meaning C
10 56,3
Use vocabulary section in textbook C 10
61,3
D = Discover meaning C=Consolidate meaning
The study involved 581 Spanish-speaking learners consisting of 279 male and 302 female students. It was found out from the research that there was
significant difference on the number of VLS used, yet there was only very small difference on the number of the rank of the ten most and ten least used VLS
between male and female learners. Furthermore, the ten most frequently used strategies indicate that the balance in both sexes in terms of the number of
discovering and consolidating strategies. It was clearly seen that the use of bilingual dictionary took the highest percentage and occupied the first rank for
both male and female learners. The ten least of frequently used strategies are listed in the table 2.9 below:
Table 2.9 The Ten Least Frequently Used Vocabulary Strategies Catalan, 2003:63 Strategy
Rank Percentage
Male Female
Male Female
Underline initial letter of a word 1
2 2,9
4,3 Use flash cards
2 5
7,9 7,6
Put English labels on objects 3
1 8,6
3,6 Use peg method
4 4
9,7 6,6
Group words together spatially 5
11,1 Configurate the word
6 6
11,5 8,6
Group words within a story line 7
3 12,2
6,6 Other strategies
7 9,6
Use physical action 8
9 13,3
9,9 Use semantic map
9 13,3
Skip or pass new word 10
8 14,3
9,9 Use loci method
10 9,9
From the table 2.8, it shows that the least frequently used vocabulary strategies taken by male learners were underlining initial letter of a word.
Nevertheless, most female learners preferred not to put English labels on objects. It is clearly seen that almost in all strategies, the percentage of male learners
tended to be higher than the percentage of female learners. d
Nation‟s Taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies Nation 2001:218 proposes taxonomy of various vocabulary learning
strategies. The strategies in the taxonomy are divided into three general classes of planning, source and processes, each of which is divided into a subset of key
strategies. The taxonomy separates different aspects of vocabulary knowledge such as what is involved in knowing a word.
The first category, planning, involves deciding on where, how and how often to focus attention on the vocabulary item. The strategies in this category are
choosing words, choosing aspects of word knowledge and choosing strategies as well as planning
repetition. The second category in Nation‘s taxonomy involves getting information about the word. This information may include all the aspects
involved in knowing a word. It can come from the word form itself, from the context, from a reference source like dictionaries or glossaries and from analogies
and connections with other languages. Process is the last category in Nation‘s
2001 : 218 taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies. It includes establishing word knowledge through noticing, retrieving and generating strategies. To Nation,
noticing involves seeing the word item to be learned. Strategies at this level include putting the word in a vocabulary notebook or list; putting the word onto a
word card and orally and visually repeating the word. He argues that although
these strategies are all of recording type, they are useful steps resulting in deeper processing of words. Retrieval involves recalling the items met before. It contains
recalling knowledge in the same way it was originally stored. Generating strategies include ―attaching new aspects of knowledge to what is known through
instantiation i.e., visualizing examples of words, word analysis, semantic mapping and using scales and grids Nation: 2001: 222. Generating strategies
include rule-driven generation, as well; such as, creating context, collocations and sentences containing the new word. Besides, the mnemonic strategies and using
the word in different context through four skills are also defined as generating strategies. The summ
ary of the Nation‘s taxonomy of VLS is shown in the table 2.10 as follows:
Table 2.10 A Taxonomy of Kinds of Vocabulary Learning Strategies Nation, 2001: 218
General class of strategies Types of strategies
Planning : choosing what to focus on and when to focus on it.
Choosing words Choosing the aspects of word knowledge
Choosing strategies Planning repetition
Sources: finding information about words Analyzing the word
Using context Consulting a reference source in L1 or L2
Using parallels in L1 and L2 Processes: establishing knowledge
Noticing Retrieving
Generating
c. Web-Based Learning in CALL It is believed that web-
based learning involves the students‘ participation through the use of computer which lets them work in flexible time management to
be more autonomous in learning. Hence, in this study, it applied integrating technology into classroom context by the use of web in the classroom which is
known as Computer-Assisted Language Learning CALL. Schank 2001 defines web-based learning as the learning activities which involve computer networks as
e-learning. It emphasizes that e-learning is not merely distance learning in that it may also happen to conduct the activities in the classroom, but those activities are
also built outside of the classroom. Beatty 2003: 257 claims that instead of many online language leaning providers, however, in fact learners still need to have
direct interaction with teachers to learn a new language. Furthermore, Egbert and Smith 1999:69-70 mention five conditions how
the internet promotes the optimal learning. First, it increases self-esteem by empowering both teachers and students. Secondly, it accommodates different
learning styles and empowers learners regardless of physical challenges or social and cultural differences. Next, the communication encourages and motivates
students to get involved in authentic projects and to write for a real audience of their peers instead of the teacher. Besides, it promotes critical thinking which
makes the students become more active and collaborative in making their writing meaningful. Another point is that it makes learning relevant by teaching students
skills they need when they are ready to learn, and the last it allows learners to participate cooperatively in the educational process.
Moreover, Beatty 2003 : 257 declares that web-based learning is beneficial for learners for it may function as a ‗patient tutor‘. It implies that it
provides wider chances for learners to construct their own learning style. They can practice and repeat the activities using computer as many times as they wish in
which the face-to-face classroom cannot afford. In addition, it may also support the introvert students to have more time of using their ‗private space‘ to practice
English more freely. d. Web-Based Vocabulary Learning in the Class
Vocabulary course is the compulsory course taken by first semester students at English Letters Department of Sanata Dharma University, and it
certainly plays an important role to support students to learn a language considering that vocabulary teaching and learning is central to theory and practice
of ELT. Words have a central place in culture, and learning words is seen by many as the main task and obstacle in learning another language Ronald Carter
and David Nunan, 2001:47. Hence, the learners are required to learn and practice 3,000 word lists during the course. Moreover, the learners are also expected to
learn vocabulary more independently in that the class is conducted on-line. In other words, it provides chances for the learners to conduct their independent
vocabulary learning out of the class hours as long as it may connect to the internet access; accordingly, they are trained to be able to manage their own learning
process.
Table 2.11 The Syllabus of Vocabulary Web-Based Class
VOCABULARY