Learning Strategies THEORETICAL REVIEW 1. Vocabulary

Table 2.5 Language Learning Strategies Oxford: 1990:18-21 Direct strategies I.Memory strategies A.Creating mental linkages 1.Grouping 2.Associatingelaborating 3.Practicing new words into a context B.Applying images and sound 1.Using imagery 2.Semantic mapping 3.Using keywords 4.Representing sounds in memory C.Reviewing well 1.Structured reviewing D.Employing action 1.Using physical response or sensation 2.Using mechanical techniques II.Cognitive strategies A.Practicing 1.Repeating 2.Formality practicing with sounds and writing systems 3.Recognizing and using formulas and patterns 4.Recombining 5.Practicing naturalistically B.Receiving and sending messages 1.Getting the idea quickly 2.Using resources for receiving and sending messages C.Analyzing and reasoning 1.Reasoning deductively 2.Analyzing expressions 3.Analyzing contrastively across languages 4.Translating 5.Transferring D.Creating structure for input and output 1.Taking notes 2.Summarizing 3.Highlighting III.Compensatio n strategies A.Guessing intelligently 1.Using linguistic clues 2.Using other clues B.Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing 1.Switching to the mother tongue 2.Getting help 3.Using mime or gesture 4.Avoinding communication partially or totally 5.Selecting the topic 6.Adjusting or approximating the message 7.Coining words 8.Using a circumlocution or synonym Indirect strategies I.Metecognitive strategies A.Centering your learning 1.Overviewing and linking with already known material 2.Paying attention 3.Delaying speech production to focus on listening B.Arranging and planning your learning 1.Finding out about language learning 2.Organizing 3.Setting goals and objectives 4.Identifying the purpose of a language task purposeful listeningreadingspeakingwriting 5.Planning for a language task 6.Seeking practice opportunities C.Evaluating your learning 1.Self-monitoring 2.Self-evaluating II.Affective strategies A.Lowering your anxiety 1.Using progressive relaxation, deep breathing, or meditation 2.Using music 3.Using laughter B.Encouraging yourself 1.Making positive statements 2.Taking risks wisely 3.Rewarding yourself C.Taking your emotional 1.Listening to your body 2.Using a checklist temperature 3.Writing a language learning diary 4.Discussing your feeling with someone else III.Social strategies A.Asking questions 1.Asking for clarification or verification 2.Asking for correction B.Cooperating with others 1.Cooperating with peers 2.Cooperating with proficient users of the new language C.Empathizing with others 1.Developing cultural understanding 2.Becoming aware of others‘ thoughts and feelings From table 2.5 it shows that language learning strategies are possibly conducted for four skills listening, reading, writing, and speaking. b. Vocabulary Learning Strategies VLS This sub-topic of the study is intended to provide theories of Vocabulary Learning Strategies VLS. It comprises the definitions of VLS and four different types of VLS proposed by Schmitt, Gu and Johnson, Catalan, and also Nation. 1 Definition of Vocabulary Learning Strategies VLS Some proponents have derived the definitions of Vocabulary Learning Strategies VLS. VLS basically are designed to assist learners in order to control manage their vocabulary learning to achieve optimal goals. Schmitt 1997:2003 illustrates VLS as the process of obtaining, storing, retrieving, and using of lexical items. Being in line with Schmitt, Catalan 2003 describes a more detailed VLS. VLS is defined as a process or strategy which provide certain steps taken by learners to learn vocabulary: ‗1 to find out the meaning of unknown words, 2 to retain them in long-term memory, 3 to recall them at will, and 4 to use them in oral or wr itten mode‘ Catalan: 2003: 56. 2 Types of Vocabulary Learning Strategy VLS The experts generally provide some similar and different characteristics between one and other strategies in that they basically have the same principles, yet they view them in quite different ways. a Schmit t‟s Taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies Schmitt 2000 : 207 compiled a list of VLS categorized according to the following two purposes: 1 strategies which discover a new word‘s meaning; and 2 strategies which consolidate a word once it has been encountered. Schmitt‘s taxonomy of VLS includes a variety of different strategies and all important skills in the learner‘s process. The first strategies are determination strategies. Determination strategies are individual learning strategies, which help learners to discover the meaning of words by themselves with no assistance from peers, such as guessing the words from the context Schmitt, 2000, 207. The next strategies are called social strategies. Social strategies engage learners in interaction with their peers, and this helps them to learn from each other, such as observing their classmates and asking their teacher for the meaning of a word Schmitt, 2000, 207. The third strategies are memory strategies. Memory strategies are strategies, which engage learners in learning the new word through mental processing by associating their existing or background knowledge with the new word Schmitt, 2000, 207. For example, if the learner comes across the word ―cat‖, the learner can group the word ―cat‖ under the category of a four-legged animal because the learner already knows the image of these four-legged animals from hisher background knowledge. Another example is that the learner sees a particular action from a kind of sports on TV and guesses the name of the sport be-cause heshe already remembers the actions associated with that sport. The fourth strategies are cognitive strategies. Cognitive strategies do not engage learners in mental processing but is more mechanical. An example is repeating the pronunciation of new words Schmitt, 2000. The last strategies are metacognitive strategies. Metacognitive strategies are strategies relating to processes involving monitoring, decision-making, and evaluation of one‘s progress. Metacognitive strategies help the learner in determining appropriate VLS for learning new words Schmitt, 2000. Table 2.6 A Taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies Schmitt, 2000, 207 Strategy Group Use Helpful Strategies for the discovery of a new word‘s meaning DET Analyze part of speech DET Analyze affixes and roots DET Check for L1 cognate DET Analyze any available pictures or gestures DET Guess from textual context DET Bilingual dictionary DET Monolingual dictionary DET Word lists DET Flash cards SOC Ask teacher for an L1 translation SOC Ask teacher for paraphrase of synonym of new word SOC Ask teacher for a sentence including the new word SOC Ask classmates for meaning SOC Discover new meaning through group work activity 32 15 11 47 74 85 35 - - 45 42 24 73 35 75 69 40 84 73 95 77 - - 61 86 78 65 65 Strategy Group Use Helpful Strategies for consolidating a word once it has been encountered SOC Study and practice meaning in a group SOC Teacher checks students‘s flash cards or word lists for accuracy SOC Interact with native speakers MEM Study word with a pictorial representation of its meaning MEM Image word‘s meaning MEM Connect word to a personale experience MEM Associate the word with its coordinates MEM Connect the word to its synonyms and antonyms MEM Use semantic maps MEM Use ‗scales‘ for gradable adjectives MEM Peg method MEM Loci methhod MEM Group words together to study them MEM Group words together spatially on a page MEM Use new words in sentences MEM Group words together within a storyline MEM Study the spelling of a word MEM Study the sound of a word MEM Say new word aloud when studying MEM Image word form MEM Underline initial letter of the word MEM Configuration MEM Use Keyword Method MEM Affixes and roots remembering MEM Part of speech remembering MEM Paraphrase the word‘s meaning MEM Use cognate in study 30 3 - - 50 37 13 41 9 16 - - - - 18 - 74 60 69 32 - - 13 14 30 40 10 51 39 - - 38 62 54 88 47 62 - - - - 82 - 87 81 91 22 - - 31 61 73 77 34 Strategy Group Use Helpful MEM Learn the words of an idiom together MEM Use physical action when learning a word MEM Use semantic feature grids COG Verbal repetition COG Written repetition COG Word lists COG Flash cards COG Use the vocabulary section in your textbook COG Listen to tape of word lists COG Put English labels on physical objects COG Keep a vocabulary notebook MET Use English-language media songs, movies, newcasts MET Testing oneself with word class MET Use spaced word practice MET Skip or pass new word MET Continue to study word overtime 48 13 - 76 76 54 25 48 - - - - - - 41 45 77 49 - 84 91 67 65 76 - - - - - - 16 87 b Gu and Johnson‟s Taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies Gu and Johnson 1996 propose second language L2 vocabulary learning strategies as metacognitive, cognitive, memory and activation strategies. Metacognitive strategies include selective attention and self-initation. Cognitive strategies cover guessing, using dictionaries, and note taking. Memory strategies deal with rehearsal and encoding association. Finally, activation involves using new words in different context. Those four strategies are defined further in the following paragraphs. Metacognitive strategies consist of selective attention and self-initiation strategies. Foreign and second language learners who employ selective attention strategies know which words are important for them to learn and are essential for adequate comprehension of a passage. Learners employing self-initiation strategies use a variety of means to make the meaning of vocabulary items clear. Cognitive strategies in Gu and Johnson‘s taxonomy entail guessing strategies, skillful use of dictionaries and note-taking strategies. Learners using guessing strategies draw upon their background knowledge and use linguistic clues like grammatical structures of a sentence to guess the meaning of a word. Memory strategies are classified into rehearsal and encoding categories. Word lists and repetition are instances of rehearsal strategies. Encoding strategies encompass such strategies as association, imagery, visual, auditory, semantic, and contextual encoding as well as word structure such as analyzing a word in terms of prefixes, stems, and suffixes. Activation strategies include those strategies through which the learners actually use new words in different contexts. For instance, learners may set sentences using the words they have just learned. All these suggested strategies can be summarized in a table as follows: Table 2.7 Gu Johnson‟s Categories of Vocabulary Learning Strategies 1996 Strategies Metacognitive Cognative Memory Activation  Selective attention: identifying essential words for comprehension  Self-initation: Using a variety of means to make the meaning of words clear  Guessing: activating background knowledge, using linguistic items  Use dictionaries  Note taking  Rehearsal: Word lists, repetition,etc  Encoding association imagery, visual, auditory, etc  Using new words in different context c Catalan‟s Taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies Catalan 2003 defines learners‘ vocabulary strategies based on their sexes and also identifies the ten most frequently used strategies as presented in the table 2.8. Table 2.8 The Ten Most Frequently Used Vocabulary Strategies Catalan, 2003:63 Strategy Rank Percentage Male Female Male Female Use a bilingual dictionary D 1 1 83,2 85,8 Take notes about the word in class C 2 2 78,1 84,8 Guess from textual context D 3 3 74,9 80,08 Ask teacher for an L1 translation D 4 5 72,8 73,2 Ask classmates for meaning D 5 4 69,2 74,8 Analyze part of speech D 6 8 64,5 71,5 Connect the word to cognates C 7 7 59,9 69,9 Use English language media C 8 9 55,9 62,6 Say word aloud when studying C 9 6 55,8 71,5 Form image of word‘s meaning C 10 56,3 Use vocabulary section in textbook C 10 61,3 D = Discover meaning C=Consolidate meaning The study involved 581 Spanish-speaking learners consisting of 279 male and 302 female students. It was found out from the research that there was significant difference on the number of VLS used, yet there was only very small difference on the number of the rank of the ten most and ten least used VLS between male and female learners. Furthermore, the ten most frequently used strategies indicate that the balance in both sexes in terms of the number of discovering and consolidating strategies. It was clearly seen that the use of bilingual dictionary took the highest percentage and occupied the first rank for both male and female learners. The ten least of frequently used strategies are listed in the table 2.9 below: Table 2.9 The Ten Least Frequently Used Vocabulary Strategies Catalan, 2003:63 Strategy Rank Percentage Male Female Male Female Underline initial letter of a word 1 2 2,9 4,3 Use flash cards 2 5 7,9 7,6 Put English labels on objects 3 1 8,6 3,6 Use peg method 4 4 9,7 6,6 Group words together spatially 5 11,1 Configurate the word 6 6 11,5 8,6 Group words within a story line 7 3 12,2 6,6 Other strategies 7 9,6 Use physical action 8 9 13,3 9,9 Use semantic map 9 13,3 Skip or pass new word 10 8 14,3 9,9 Use loci method 10 9,9 From the table 2.8, it shows that the least frequently used vocabulary strategies taken by male learners were underlining initial letter of a word. Nevertheless, most female learners preferred not to put English labels on objects. It is clearly seen that almost in all strategies, the percentage of male learners tended to be higher than the percentage of female learners. d Nation‟s Taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies Nation 2001:218 proposes taxonomy of various vocabulary learning strategies. The strategies in the taxonomy are divided into three general classes of planning, source and processes, each of which is divided into a subset of key strategies. The taxonomy separates different aspects of vocabulary knowledge such as what is involved in knowing a word. The first category, planning, involves deciding on where, how and how often to focus attention on the vocabulary item. The strategies in this category are choosing words, choosing aspects of word knowledge and choosing strategies as well as planning repetition. The second category in Nation‘s taxonomy involves getting information about the word. This information may include all the aspects involved in knowing a word. It can come from the word form itself, from the context, from a reference source like dictionaries or glossaries and from analogies and connections with other languages. Process is the last category in Nation‘s 2001 : 218 taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies. It includes establishing word knowledge through noticing, retrieving and generating strategies. To Nation, noticing involves seeing the word item to be learned. Strategies at this level include putting the word in a vocabulary notebook or list; putting the word onto a word card and orally and visually repeating the word. He argues that although these strategies are all of recording type, they are useful steps resulting in deeper processing of words. Retrieval involves recalling the items met before. It contains recalling knowledge in the same way it was originally stored. Generating strategies include ―attaching new aspects of knowledge to what is known through instantiation i.e., visualizing examples of words, word analysis, semantic mapping and using scales and grids Nation: 2001: 222. Generating strategies include rule-driven generation, as well; such as, creating context, collocations and sentences containing the new word. Besides, the mnemonic strategies and using the word in different context through four skills are also defined as generating strategies. The summ ary of the Nation‘s taxonomy of VLS is shown in the table 2.10 as follows: Table 2.10 A Taxonomy of Kinds of Vocabulary Learning Strategies Nation, 2001: 218 General class of strategies Types of strategies Planning : choosing what to focus on and when to focus on it. Choosing words Choosing the aspects of word knowledge Choosing strategies Planning repetition Sources: finding information about words Analyzing the word Using context Consulting a reference source in L1 or L2 Using parallels in L1 and L2 Processes: establishing knowledge Noticing Retrieving Generating c. Web-Based Learning in CALL It is believed that web- based learning involves the students‘ participation through the use of computer which lets them work in flexible time management to be more autonomous in learning. Hence, in this study, it applied integrating technology into classroom context by the use of web in the classroom which is known as Computer-Assisted Language Learning CALL. Schank 2001 defines web-based learning as the learning activities which involve computer networks as e-learning. It emphasizes that e-learning is not merely distance learning in that it may also happen to conduct the activities in the classroom, but those activities are also built outside of the classroom. Beatty 2003: 257 claims that instead of many online language leaning providers, however, in fact learners still need to have direct interaction with teachers to learn a new language. Furthermore, Egbert and Smith 1999:69-70 mention five conditions how the internet promotes the optimal learning. First, it increases self-esteem by empowering both teachers and students. Secondly, it accommodates different learning styles and empowers learners regardless of physical challenges or social and cultural differences. Next, the communication encourages and motivates students to get involved in authentic projects and to write for a real audience of their peers instead of the teacher. Besides, it promotes critical thinking which makes the students become more active and collaborative in making their writing meaningful. Another point is that it makes learning relevant by teaching students skills they need when they are ready to learn, and the last it allows learners to participate cooperatively in the educational process. Moreover, Beatty 2003 : 257 declares that web-based learning is beneficial for learners for it may function as a ‗patient tutor‘. It implies that it provides wider chances for learners to construct their own learning style. They can practice and repeat the activities using computer as many times as they wish in which the face-to-face classroom cannot afford. In addition, it may also support the introvert students to have more time of using their ‗private space‘ to practice English more freely. d. Web-Based Vocabulary Learning in the Class Vocabulary course is the compulsory course taken by first semester students at English Letters Department of Sanata Dharma University, and it certainly plays an important role to support students to learn a language considering that vocabulary teaching and learning is central to theory and practice of ELT. Words have a central place in culture, and learning words is seen by many as the main task and obstacle in learning another language Ronald Carter and David Nunan, 2001:47. Hence, the learners are required to learn and practice 3,000 word lists during the course. Moreover, the learners are also expected to learn vocabulary more independently in that the class is conducted on-line. In other words, it provides chances for the learners to conduct their independent vocabulary learning out of the class hours as long as it may connect to the internet access; accordingly, they are trained to be able to manage their own learning process. Table 2.11 The Syllabus of Vocabulary Web-Based Class VOCABULARY

1. Credits : 2 credits

2. Description

This course aims at helping the students develop their vocabulary. The students are given a list of the first threee thousand word list to study and practice. The class is held on-line. The students learn the mearnings and the use of the words in the list and do the practice and the tests through the internet. The website used for the class is www.eltgallery.com.

3. Course Competence

The students are able to identify and give the meanings of the words and use the words correctly.

4. Course Progress No

Activities Topic 1. 2. The students study the meanings and use of 185 words every week, practice them, and make sentences using the words. The students do the weekly exercises and tests. The First Three Thousand Word List on-line material On-line exercises and tests

5. Materials

1. The First Three Thousand Word List 2. www. eltgallery.com

6. Evaluation

During the course, the students are to do 12 available weekly tests, 12 sentence composition exercises, and do two insertive tests and a final tests. They can do weekly tests and sentence composition exercises in class at least 60 of them or ouside, but they have to do the insertive and final tests in class on the scheduled dates. The final grade will be based on the average scores of the weekly, mid, and final tests and test 50, score of the sentences 20, setence comments 10, crossword completion 20. The mid and final tests are to be done in the lab, and the students are not allowed to open their books. The scores of the mid and final tests are worth 3 times of the weekly tests; the formula to compute the score is the total of the weekly test scores, plus the mid test score times 3, plus the final test score times 3, and divided by 18.

7. Starting the class

All the classroom activities are conducted though the internet. To join and do the classroom activities the students need to the follow the following steps. a. Visit www.eltgallery.com. b. Click Menu and choose Login. c. Use your student number as the user name and password to login. d. Click Menu, choose Edit personal data, and edit your data. In editing your home phone number, you can write your mobile phone number if you do not a phone at your house. e. To start your learning activities, click the menu Vocabulary and choose the level. The level for this class is 3.

8. Student Learning Activities

a. Study the words in the vocabulary book, one unit for every week. You can also review the available material by clicking the menu Word Display under the main menu Vocabulary. b. Practice the pronunciation of the key words. c. Do the weekly test by clicking the menu Tests and choose the relevant unit. d. Write 20 sentences using the available words by clicking Write sentences. e. Comment your classmate sentences by clicking Comment sentences. f. Do the crossword; there are 14 crosswords throughout the semester. To complete the tasks, the students are encouraged to cooperate. They can cooperate to do all the tasks except the mid and final tests.

9. Teacher Activities

The teacher has the following tasks. a. Give pronunciation practice. b. Settle the internet connection problem. c. Help the students with technical problems. d. Answer students questions. e. Correct the students comments on the classmate work. f. Fix the students records. g. Manage the class. We will have more practice through twitter. Please follow me at benocty Benocty Berman. If you have a problem with the crossword, please report it to me. Copy your computerlaptop screen by pressing the Shift button and the PrtScr button at the same time and paste to an MS- Word page. Save the page and send to me through b.b.dwijatmokogmail.com . You can also contact me 08157902995 if you have a problem with your vocabulary class. In this study web-based learning was conducted using English Language Teaching Gallery, and it is commonly called ELTGallery web. This web provides some facilities supporting the learning teaching process including vocabulary class. In web-based vocabulary class, the web-site, ELTGallery, provides several menu namely, level, word display, test, crosswords, write sentences, comment sentences, matching, and score record. The display of the vocabulary menu in the web-site is presented by figure 2.2 as follows: Figure 2.2 Vocabulary Menu in ELTGallery ELTGallery enabled students to display the vocabulary lists. Moreover, learners could also set their learning strategy if they needed to view or hide the definitions or synonyms of the words when they memorized those words. It also enabled learners to post and display their works such as their tests, crosswords, sentence writing, and so on. Furthermore, it also accommodated students to score their cl assmates‘ work. The web supported students to accomplish their vocabulary tasks more quickly and practically by simply typing the answers and clicking for submitting the works. Finally, it e nables to score the students‘ works immediately and display their scores. Figure 2.3 Vocabulary Facilities in ELTGallery Those facilities could be used anytime and anywhere as long as the learners could reach internet access in that they used web-based learning for encouraging the learners to construct their own learning.

3. Crossword Puzzles

A crossword puzzle belongs to one of the most common vocabulary games. A crossword puzzle is a game in which a player guesses the words from the definitions given and the words are supposed to fit into the diagram of black and white squares Wahyuningsih: 2009 as cited in Njoroge, Ndung‘u, and Gathigia: 2013 . The first ―word-cross‖ in the United States was published in the New York World in 1913, although similar puzzles have been around in different forms since Egyptian times. In 19th century in England, they were aimed mostly at a juvenile audience, and did not become a craze for adults until Simon and Schuster printed the first book of them in the US in the 1920 ‘s, when they then took on the familiar name ―crosswords.‖ The puzzle‘s popularity continued to build throughout the rest of the twentieth century. Today, most daily newspapers include a crossword puzzle as well as many magazines. In fact, magazine racks usually include a number of magazines and books containing only crossword puzzles. It did not take long for teachers to see the educational possibilities of these word puzzles and adopt them as media to teach. And when photocopying became commonplace, so did opportunities for educators to create customizable puzzles based on the curriculum they were covering. The advent of the internet age even gave educators access to any number of online programs that will create puzzles geared to their student‘s particular subject. Crossword puzzles may bring some educational values. First of all, crossword solving involves several useful skills including vocabulary, reasoning, spelling, and word attack skills. To solve any crossword puzzle, a person must be able to identify and understand the terms being used. This often involves acquiring new vocabulary or terminology. It can also involve making differentiations between similar words or phrases. Correctly deciphering a crossword also requires exact spelling, which for students may mean practicing dictionary skills. Other important skills required for completing these puzzles include making inferences, evaluating choices, and drawing conclusions. Another