REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES

vocabulary learning in order to obtain more optimal effects to support them achieving the goals.

C. THOERETICAL FRAMEWORK

Theoretical framework provides relevant theories used to answer the research questions of this study which investigate how the learners employ vocabulary learning strategies through the puzzles and the most significant factors which encouraged them to learn vocabulary using the puzzles. In order to answer the research questions, this study combines the holistic concepts of CALL, web- based learning, vocabulary, language learning strategies, and the online crossword puzzles implemented in the course. First, this study adapted the concepts of language learning strategies proposed by Oxford 1990 to categorize the vocabulary learning strategies applied by the students through the puzzles. Oxford described language learning strategies to learn a new language, and they are possibly applied for four skills namely listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Thus, this theory is considered providing detailed vocabulary learning strategies. Accordingly, this theory is used in this study inasmuch as it provides more complete and systematic vocabulary learning strategies. However, it is needed to classify and adjust the theory in order to be used as the construct of this study which focuses on vocabulary learning strategies. Table 2.13 Vocabulary Learning Strategies Adapted from Oxford 1990:17 Direct strategies are language learning strategies which directly involve the target language Oxford, 1990. Indirect strategies are strategies which support and manage language learning without directly involving the target language Oxford, 1990. Direct strategies Memory strategies Creating mental linkages  Classifying words into meaningful unit to remember  Relating new words to concept already in memory Reviewing well Reviewing in carefully spaced intervals Employing action Using creative but tangible techniques to remember new words Cognitive strategies Practicing Repeating learning words using the same or various activities Analyzing and reasoning  Comparing vocabulary of the new language with elements of one‘s own language to determine similarities and differences  Converting target words into native words and vice versa from words and phrases Creating structure for input and output  Taking note of words which are needed to be learnt more  Highlighting some words to focus on them Compensatio n strategies Guessing intelligently  Seeking and using language-based clues in order to guess the meaning of words Indirect strategies Metacogniti ve strategies Centering learning  Comprehensively taking overview a key concept, principle, or set of materials in an upcoming activity and associating it with what is already known  Deciding in advance to pay attention in general to learning tasks and ignore the distracters  Paying attention to specific aspects of the words or phrases Arranging and planning learning  Setting aims for learning vocabulary  Deciding the purposes of doing the tasks  Creating opportunities to practice vocabulary Evaluating learning  Identifying errors in understanding words  Evaluating the progress in learning vocabulary Affective strategies Lowering anxiety  Achieving convenient feeling to learn vocabulary Self- encouraging  Providing personal motivation during the learning process Social strategies Cooperating with others  Working together with peers to solve problems  Discussing materials to get better understanding of the materials with peers Oxford 1990 divides the strategies into two types: direct strategies and indirect strategies. Direct strategies refer to strategies which directly involve the target language Oxford : 1990 : 37. As it has been mentioned previously, Oxford divided direct strategies into three categories: memory, cognitive, and compensation. Those strategies engage mental processing of the language, yet each of those strategies does the process in a different way. The direct strategies comprise memory strategies, cognitive strategies, and compensation strategies. Memory strategies support learners to store and retrieve new information. In this study the new information may refer to new words since it focuses to deal with vocabulary field. Cognitive strategies encourage students to know the meaning and produce new language the words by different ways. Finally, compensation strategies may function to help learners use the language the words without counting their missing knowledge as the obstacles. Memory strategies involve 1 creating mental linkage such as grouping, associating or elaborating, 2 reviewing well like structured reviewing, 4 employing action such as using physical response or sensation and using mechanical techniques. Meanwhile, cognitive strategies cover 1 practicing repeating, formally practicing with sounds and writing systems, recognizing and using formulas and patterns, recombining, and practicing naturalistically, 2 analyzing and reasoning reasoning deductively, analyzing expressions, analyzing contrastively across languages, translating, and transferring, 4 creating structure for input and output taking notes, summarizing, and highlighting. Lastly, compensation strategies include 1 guessing such as using linguistic clues and using other clues and Meanwhile, indirect strategies consist of metacognitive strategies, affective strategies, and social strategies. In metacognitive strategies, they comprise 1 centering the learning like overviewing and linking with already known material, paying attention, and delaying speech production to focus on listening, 2 arranging and planning the learning like finding out about language learning, organizing, setting goals and objectives, identifying the purpose of a language task, and seeking practice opportunities, 3 evaluating the learning like self-monitoring and self-evaluating. The affective strategies involve 1 lowering anxiety, 2 doing self- encouraging such as making positive statements, taking risks wisely, and doing self-rewarding. Lastly, social strategies include 1 asking questions asking for clarification or verification, and asking correction, 2 cooperating with others cooperating with peers and cooperating with proficient users of the new language. Indeed, Oxford‘s vocabulary learning strategies VLS have some similarities with other proponents‘ such as Schmitt, Gu and Johnson, Catalan, and also Nation VLS even though they use different terms to define the similar strategies. Table 2.13 presents the summary of similarities between Oxford‘s VLS and other similar concepts proposed by different proponents. Table 2.14 Oxford‟s VLS compared with Other Proponents‟ Concepts Oxford‟s 1990:18-21VLS Other Proponents‟ Similar Concepts Direct strategies Memory strategies Creating mental linkages  Schmitt‘s 2000:207 memory strategy : connecting words with personal experience, associating with its coordinate, grouping words together to study them  Gu and Johnson‘s 1996 memory strategy : encoding association Reviewing well  Schmitt‘s 2000:207 metacognitive strategy : continuing learning words over time. Employing action  Schmitt‘s 2000:207 memory strategy : using physical action when learning a word. Cognitive strategies Practicing  Schmitt‘s 2000:207 cognitive strategy : written repetition Analyzing and reasoning  Schmitt‘s 2000:207 determination : using bilingual and monolingual dictionary  Catalan‘s 2003:63 using bilingual dictionary  Gu and Johnso n‘s 1996 cognative stategy : using dictionary Creating structure for input and output  Gu and Johnson‘s 1996 cognative strategy : note taking Compensatio n strategies Guessing intelligently  Gu and Johnson‘s 1996 cognative strategy : guessing by activating background knowledge, using linguistic items Indirect strategies Metacognitiv e strategies Centering learning  Schmitt‘s 2000:207 metacognitive strategy: skipping or passing new word  Gu and Johnson‘s 1996 metacognitive strategy : selecting attention by identifying essential words for comprehension.  Nation‘s 2001 : 218 planning : choosing the aspects of word knowledge Arranging and planning learning  Nation‘s 2001 : 218 planning : choosing what to focus on and when to focus on it Evaluating learning  Schmitt‘s 2000:207, Catalan‘s 2003:63 using bilingual dictionary, Gu and Johnson‘s 1996 using dictionary