vocabulary learning in order to obtain more optimal effects to support them achieving the goals.
C. THOERETICAL FRAMEWORK
Theoretical framework provides relevant theories used to answer the research questions of this study which investigate how the learners employ
vocabulary learning strategies through the puzzles and the most significant factors which encouraged them to learn vocabulary using the puzzles. In order to answer
the research questions, this study combines the holistic concepts of CALL, web- based learning, vocabulary, language learning strategies, and the online crossword
puzzles implemented in the course. First, this study adapted the concepts of language learning strategies
proposed by Oxford 1990 to categorize the vocabulary learning strategies applied by the students through the puzzles. Oxford described language learning
strategies to learn a new language, and they are possibly applied for four skills namely listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Thus, this theory is considered
providing detailed vocabulary learning strategies. Accordingly, this theory is used in this study inasmuch as it provides more complete and systematic vocabulary
learning strategies. However, it is needed to classify and adjust the theory in order to be used as the construct of this study which focuses on vocabulary learning
strategies.
Table 2.13 Vocabulary Learning Strategies Adapted from Oxford 1990:17
Direct strategies
are language
learning strategies
which directly
involve the target
language Oxford,
1990.
Indirect strategies
are strategies
which support
and manage
language learning
without directly
involving the target
language Oxford,
1990. Direct
strategies Memory
strategies Creating
mental linkages
Classifying words into meaningful unit to remember
Relating new words to concept already in memory
Reviewing well
Reviewing in carefully spaced intervals Employing
action Using creative but tangible techniques to
remember new words Cognitive
strategies Practicing
Repeating learning words using the same or various activities
Analyzing and reasoning
Comparing vocabulary of the new language with elements of one‘s own
language to determine similarities and differences
Converting target words into native words and vice versa from words and phrases
Creating structure for
input and output
Taking note of words which are needed to be learnt more
Highlighting some words to focus on them
Compensatio n strategies
Guessing intelligently
Seeking and using language-based clues in order to guess the meaning of words
Indirect strategies
Metacogniti ve strategies
Centering learning
Comprehensively taking overview a key concept, principle, or set of materials in
an upcoming activity and associating it with what is already known
Deciding in advance to pay attention in general to learning tasks and ignore the
distracters Paying attention to specific aspects of the
words or phrases Arranging and
planning learning
Setting aims for learning vocabulary Deciding the purposes of doing the tasks
Creating opportunities to practice vocabulary
Evaluating learning
Identifying errors in understanding words Evaluating the progress in learning
vocabulary Affective
strategies Lowering
anxiety Achieving convenient feeling to learn
vocabulary Self-
encouraging Providing personal motivation during the
learning process Social
strategies Cooperating
with others Working together with peers to solve
problems Discussing materials to get better
understanding of the materials with peers
Oxford 1990 divides the strategies into two types: direct strategies and indirect strategies. Direct strategies refer to strategies which directly involve the
target language Oxford : 1990 : 37. As it has been mentioned previously, Oxford divided direct strategies into three categories: memory, cognitive, and
compensation. Those strategies engage mental processing of the language, yet each of those strategies does the process in a different way.
The direct strategies comprise memory strategies, cognitive strategies, and compensation strategies. Memory strategies support learners to store and retrieve
new information. In this study the new information may refer to new words since it focuses to deal with vocabulary field. Cognitive strategies encourage students to
know the meaning and produce new language the words by different ways. Finally, compensation strategies may function to help learners use the language
the words without counting their missing knowledge as the obstacles. Memory strategies involve 1 creating mental linkage such as grouping, associating or
elaborating, 2 reviewing well like structured reviewing, 4 employing action such as using physical response or sensation and using mechanical techniques.
Meanwhile, cognitive strategies cover 1 practicing repeating, formally practicing with sounds and writing systems, recognizing and using formulas and patterns,
recombining, and practicing naturalistically, 2 analyzing and reasoning reasoning deductively, analyzing expressions, analyzing contrastively across
languages, translating, and transferring, 4 creating structure for input and output taking notes, summarizing, and highlighting. Lastly, compensation strategies
include 1 guessing such as using linguistic clues and using other clues and
Meanwhile, indirect strategies consist of metacognitive strategies, affective strategies, and social strategies. In metacognitive strategies, they
comprise 1 centering the learning like overviewing and linking with already known material, paying attention, and delaying speech production to focus on
listening, 2 arranging and planning the learning like finding out about language learning, organizing, setting goals and objectives, identifying the purpose of a
language task, and seeking practice opportunities, 3 evaluating the learning like self-monitoring and self-evaluating. The affective strategies involve 1 lowering
anxiety, 2 doing self- encouraging such as making positive statements, taking risks wisely, and doing self-rewarding. Lastly, social strategies include 1 asking
questions asking for clarification or verification, and asking correction, 2 cooperating with others cooperating with peers and cooperating with proficient
users of the new language. Indeed, Oxford‘s vocabulary learning strategies VLS have some
similarities with other proponents‘ such as Schmitt, Gu and Johnson, Catalan, and also Nation VLS even though they use different terms to define the similar
strategies. Table 2.13 presents the summary of similarities between Oxford‘s VLS and other similar concepts proposed by different proponents.
Table 2.14 Oxford‟s VLS compared with Other Proponents‟ Concepts
Oxford‟s 1990:18-21VLS
Other Proponents‟ Similar Concepts
Direct strategies
Memory strategies
Creating mental linkages
Schmitt‘s 2000:207 memory strategy :
connecting words with personal experience, associating with its
coordinate, grouping words together to study them
Gu and Johnson‘s 1996 memory
strategy : encoding association Reviewing well
Schmitt‘s 2000:207 metacognitive
strategy : continuing learning words over time.
Employing action
Schmitt‘s 2000:207 memory strategy
: using physical action when learning a word.
Cognitive strategies
Practicing
Schmitt‘s 2000:207 cognitive strategy : written repetition
Analyzing and reasoning
Schmitt‘s 2000:207 determination : using
bilingual and monolingual dictionary
Catalan‘s 2003:63 using bilingual dictionary
Gu and Johnso n‘s 1996 cognative stategy
: using dictionary Creating structure
for input and output
Gu and Johnson‘s 1996 cognative
strategy : note taking
Compensatio n strategies
Guessing intelligently
Gu and Johnson‘s 1996 cognative
strategy : guessing by activating background knowledge, using linguistic
items
Indirect strategies
Metacognitiv e strategies
Centering learning
Schmitt‘s 2000:207 metacognitive
strategy: skipping or passing new word
Gu and Johnson‘s 1996 metacognitive strategy : selecting attention by
identifying essential words for comprehension.
Nation‘s 2001 : 218 planning :
choosing the aspects of word knowledge
Arranging and planning learning
Nation‘s 2001 : 218 planning :
choosing what to focus on and when to focus on it
Evaluating learning
Schmitt‘s 2000:207, Catalan‘s
2003:63 using bilingual dictionary, Gu and Johnson‘s 1996 using dictionary