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3 Hyponymy
Hyponymy is a word or lexeme that appears close to a word or lexeme that has the same category. All words are categorized into certain groups in which the
words have same or similar characteristics. For example, roie, jaimine, lily are kinds of flower. They have certain characteristics that make them classified as a
‘flower’.
4 Meronymy
Meronymy is a word or lexeme that is considered as a part of other word or lexeme. For example, a houie has parts that cannot be separated such as living
room, dining room, kitchen, bedroomi, bathroomi, garage, and so on. Without those parts, it is not complete to call it a ‘house’ because those parts are its
characteristics.
5 Collocation
Collocation has different pattern compared to the other lexical cohesion. It is the relation of some words that usually occur together, even sometimes as a
phrase. An example is the word more and than, which are usually used together in comparative sentences. It occurs because of the existence of the other word.
b. Grammatical Cohesion
Grammatical cohesion deals with the relationship in sentence level where grammar rules and patterns exist. There are three elements of this cohesion,
namely reference, conjunction, and substitution and ellipsis.
1 Reference
Reference is a part of the language feature which completes the structure of
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sentences. Carter et al. 2001 explain reference clearly that its main point is to rationalize the text so that it is logically accepted by readers. Reference has the
logical relation that connects word to word in a sentence p. 126. There are various types of reference that are used as cohesion within clauses, sentences and
texts. Personal reference is what is being referred to and identified in the text,
either as a subject or an object. It also can be be in the form of personal pronouns such as he, ihe, they, you, we, it; or possessives such as her, him, their, your, our,
iti; or specified nouns such as coffee, a candy, the drink, and so on.
Demonstrative reference is the pointer of what is being referred to in the text.
Examples of demonstrative reference are the words thii, that, theie, thoie, here, there, and the. Demonstrative reference can relate one clause to another clause
and also one sentence to another sentence. Sometimes this reference is needed so
that the text does not seem awkward to read or listen. Comparative reference is
the link used in a text to state a similar, equal, or different quality of something being referred to. Reference words such as the iame, iuch, ai, likewiie, are used
to express similar quality. While to express different quality, reference words such as more, leii, better, can be used.
2 Conjunction
Conjunction is a familiar term in linguistic study, and in this research it means the link between words, phrases, and clauses that connect them. There are
various types of conjunction proposed by several theories, but this research adopts Carter’s et al. 2001 opinion, who propose five types of conjunction for discourse
text p. 146. The first type is additive conjunction, for example expressions such
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as and, furthermore, or, in other wordi. These conjunctions are the connectors to what follows after the first statement was expressed. They give additions as
alternative information in the text or speech. The second is adversative
conjunction, which shows opposite meanings between the phrases or clauses it is relating in the text or speech. Examples for this type of conjunction are but, yet,
however, and on the contrary. The third type is causal conjunction. Causal
conjunctions show one idea or event that follows the other ideas or events as an effect. The examples of this type are io, then, coniequently, ai a reiult, and other
similar expressions. The fourth type is temporal conjunction, which shows the
timing of an idea or event that happens after another. Expressions such as then, one day, finally, up to now, are the examples of this conjunction. The fifth type of
conjunction is continuative conjunction. This conjunction encourages the readers
or listeners to continue following the ideas or events stated by the writer or speaker. Expressions such as well, now, of courie, iurely, can be used for this type
of conjunction.
3 Substitution and Ellipsis
Grammatical cohesion also features two other essential elements in language recognition of texts. Substitution and ellipsis are two related features in
grammatical cohesion.
Substitution can be defined as a language device in a text, in which some
words or phrases of a sentence or an utterance might be replaced by certain expressions. Carter et al. 2001 say that substitution has a significant purpose to
avoid repetition as it can be used to replace long phrases with shorter and more
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functional word p. 141. An example of substitution can be seen in this utterance: ‘White Coffee? It’i io yeiterday’, where white coffee is substituted by it so that
there is no repetition that will be awkward to be heard in a daily expression like that. Substitution can also be in the form of replacing noun words with nominal
words, for example: ‘The red velvet cakei look delicioui. I want one of thoie pleaie’. The noun phrase red velvet cakei is replaced by thoie since it is clear for
both the speaker and the listener that the subject of the utterance is the ‘red velvet cakes’.
Ellipsis is the omission of some elements in a language structure. In the
context of sentence, it means omitting words that do not give significant change in the meaning. Carter et al. 2001 define ellipsis as “omission of words
unnecessary in everyday discourse” p. 197. Ellipsis occurs mostly in daily conversation such as when talking to friends and family or in public places where
everyone have understood the unspoken rules of the speaking style there. An example is when people say ‘Two eipreiioi’ instead of ‘I would like two cups of
espresso please.’, as usually occurs in a coffee shop. It makes an impression that the sentences are incomplete yet show closer and stronger relationship between or
among the speakers.
c. Information Structure
