The Origin of Washback

14 examination has had a demonstrable effect on the content of language learning. This effect is the narrowing down the curriculum to those areas most likely to be tested. It is similar to what Lam 1994 notes that he reports an emphasis in teaching on those parts of exam carrying the most marks. In the teaching materials, Alderson and Wall 1993 point out the rising use of past papers and commercial exam-public publications, as the exam is getting closer. Teaching methods refer to the teaching approaches and techniques. Shohamy 1996 states that teaching toward high-stakes EFL exam lead the teachers to teach through simulating the exam tasks or carrying out other activities directly aiming at the developing exam skills or strategies. Engaging with feelings and attitudes, Cheng 1998b mentions that students show mixed feelings towards the examination itself, recognizing on one hand that examination makes students work to achieve good scores but at the same time thinking that examination are not an accurate reflection of all aspect their study. The examination itself has the potential to generate an atmosphere of high anxiety and fear of test results among teachers and students Spratt, 2005. Alderson and Hamp-Lyons 1996 say that most of the teachers have negative attitude towards the examination and teaching. They also mention that teachers’ feelings of guilt and frustration will also make them to be unable to make the content interesting and ensure improved scores of their students. In relation to learning, the washback engages with the question whether washback affect learning, and if so, how? Wall 2000 says what is missing are analyses of the results which indicate whether students have learned more or better because they have studied for particular test. 15 Messick 1996 mentions that for promoting positive washback, teacher should involve different activities between in regular learning and preparing for the test. Alderson and Wall 1993 argue that washback is likely to be a complex phenomenon that cannot be related directly to a test’s validity. The washback should refer to the test itself on aspects of teaching and learning. Besides, other operating forces within the education context also contribute to or ensure that washback effect takes its place on teaching and learning. Bailey 1996 summarizes, after considering several definitions of washback, that washback is defined as the influence of testing on teaching and learning, that it is widely exist and to be important to pay attention at. He comments further that there are also some concerns about what constitute both positive and negative washback, as well as about how to promote the former and inhabit the latter.

c. Washback Defined in this Study

The term washback, after reviewing some definitions of washback, can be defined into two major perspectives, i.e. the narrower view or washback within the classroom micro level, and the broader view beyond the classroom macro level. Bachman and Palmer 1996 suggest that washback at macro level refers to the extent to which a test influences within the society, ranging from the government policy making, school administration, publishing, and general opportunities, to parents’ expectation of their children. Meanwhile, at micro level, washback refers to the extent to which a test influences within the classroom, mainly in the change or innovation of curricula and teachers’ methodologies and 16 the influence of students’ learning. Bailey 1996 uses the phrases “washback to the learners” to indicate the effects of test on students, and “washback to the programme” to indicate effects of the test on teachers, administrators, curriculum developers, counselors, etc. In short, the narrower definition washback focuses on the effect that a test has on teaching and learning. The broader definition looks beyond the classroom to the educational systems and society. Thus, tests can have “significant impact not only on individuals, but also on practices and polices –in the classroom, the school, the educational system, and in the society Wall, 2005. In this study, the researcher prefers to use the term washback to describe the narrower interpretation of washback to investigate the impact of NE on teaching and learning, and also by looking at some possible factors of macro level of washback that may involve. 1 Negative Washback Language tests are often to get many criticisms for their negative influence on teaching –so-called negative washback Alderson Wall, 1993. Shohamy 1992 notes that test will lead to the narrowing down of curriculum. Students tend to learn only to pass the test rather than total phases of understanding. Teachers tend to ignore the subjects and activities that are not directly related to passing the examination, and tests accordingly alter the curriculum negatively Vernon, 1956. Davies 1968, for instance, indicates that it is too often that washback effect has been bad: designed as testing devices, examinations have become teaching devices, work is directed toward what are in past examination papers and consequently