Speech Functions in Teachers Scaffolding Talks

Instruction can not be separated by the teacher in teaching learning process as it always appears in it, in the form asking the students what to do and not to do. To make the instruction easy to accept by the students, the teachers try to introduce the use of more formal and complicated terms with familiar terms so that through this parallelism children could see the equivalencies in meaning. The choices of word that teachers used are intended to help the students know and remember the instruction before they complete the tasks given. Relating to the statements above, Gibbons 2002:21 coins that the teachers’ instructions carry a lot of speech functions. Those speech functions are in the form of statements, questions, offers, and commands Slades and Eggins, 1997. We can find those speech functions in teachers’ scaffolding talks. In order to be clear I try to unfold the speech functions in detail.

2.9.2 Speech Functions in Teachers Scaffolding Talks

As we know that we speak using a certain language, the language used differs from certain extent such as daily communication or casual conversation in the world. We need a language. Language is always involved in it. In line with the statements above Halliday says that whenever we use language, there is a context, either context of situation or context of culture. Context of situation is the particular opportunity, which the language is being used, while context of culture means that the speakers within a culture share particular assumptions and expectation so that they can take for granted the ways in which things are done. The use of language from one to other purposes is different. Language has many features and the features vary regarding to the context of situation. Three features that characterize this context: 1 what is being talked or written about is called field; 2 the relationship between speakers the writer or the reader is called tenor; and 3 whether the language is spoken or written is called mode Gibbons, 2002: 20. Those features above are also called register of text. According to Wardhaugh 1998:48 registers are set of vocabulary items associated with discrete occupational or social group. Register also can be found in the main talk and teachers’ scaffolding talks Ellis, 1985:145 as we can see in the teaching learning process, the interactional devices that the teacher used are realized in their talks through register that they select. They depend on the style of talks they have. In shorts, the style of talks they have is called register. In accordance with the statements above, Halliday and Hasan, also claim that register of a text consisting of three variables, namely: 1 field, 2 tenor and 3 mode. 1 Field refers to the topic of the text, 2 Tenor, refers to the relationship between the speaker and the listener or writer and reader, and 3 mode, refers to the channel of the communication Gibbon, 2002:2. The type of text under my study is teachers’ scaffolding talks; they belong to spoken text or oral discourse. Based on the statement above, I can say that the register in my study is also included in determining types of teachers’ scaffolding talks as the talks are realized in the speech. The selection of speech used in teachers’ talks is varied according to the purpose of the talk. It refers to the ability of a child or a learner in using certain speech to make a concept. The choice of speech becomes the style of their talk they have. It is called register. The register is also realized in teachers’ talks in giving a lesson classroom discourse because teachers use certain language in teaching learning process. Their language can be either in Javanese, Indonesian, or both of them, or English with simple grammar. The styles of their talks using those languages are also called register. The goal is to help the learners to understand the expression desired easily step by step in linear fashion and organize those steps using those languages with the goal to make the students easy to achieve the target language easily. The type of text here is called the spoken text. The topic under my study is the scaffolding talk. In this situation, the class is the highest unit of talk in the structure of classroom discourse. In this study, the classroom discourse is formed from the combination of main talks and scaffolding talks, which is manifested in the term of class or a lesson. Sinclair and Coulthard 1975 say that the rank scale of classroom discourse is realized as act, move, exchange, transaction and lesson. Willis 1992 provides a method of analyzing and describing the language used in foreign language based on an adaptation and extension of Sinclair on Coulthard model 1975. The spoken text here is the teachers’ scaffolding talks. Teachers’ scaffolding talk is realized in the choice of speech function that the teachers use. Each carries on different purposes. The speech functions used by the teachers’ in their scaffolding talks involve the speaker that is the teacher and the listener that is the student. In this situation it occurs interaction between the speaker and the listener. Both make relationship through their negotiation in meaning. The negotiation that they make is realized in the process of exchange. As Eggin and Slades 1997 say that dialog is a process of exchange involving two variables namely: 1 a commodity to be exchanged: either information statement and question or 2 role associated exchange relation: either giving or demanding. The teachers’ scaffolding talks are based on the speech functions the teachers chosen to convey their ideas. It can be in the form of teachers’ instruction, support, and guidance in order to help the learners to understand the desired expression. The teachers’ instructions carry a lot of speech functions as shown in the table below. Table 2.5 Scaffolding Interaction Gibbon, 2002:22 Teacher’s Words Commentary You have to place a magnet, put a magnet, into the cradle, and place another magnet on top of the cradle magnet. Teacher refers to the written instruction, introduces less well- known word place alongside more familiar word put. So you’ve got one magnet in here Pointing Then you have to put another magnet on top, right? Holding the second magnet, indicating where it must be placed but not actually placing it Then you have to alternate the magnets Alternate is said slowly and with emphasis It says “alternating the poles” … changing the poles. Models the more formal word alternate but uses this along with a familiar “everyday word” change; also holds the second magnet and indicated how the magnet should be turned Therefore, if you put it fetching like this … you have it one way like this. Demonstrating Then you change the poles around Indicating the movement by turning the second magnet in the air but not placing it Change it to the other side, alternate the poles Switches between more and less formal terms. So you’re trying it each way Summarizing what the children should do In other words, I can say that the use of scaffolding in the lesson shows how the teachers use the scaffolding instruction in order to make the students understand what they have to do. The speech functions used in the teacher’s scaffolding instructions are introducing, pointing, indicating, emphasizing, demonstrating, and summarizing. Those speech functions realized in the teachers’ scaffolding talks. The teachers’ scaffolding talk under my study is the scaffolding talks used in giving a lesson in a classroom through some stages either in Javanese, Indonesian or in English. In lines with the statements above, Wardhaugh 1998 says that a code is a system used for communication between two or more parties. According to Halliday 1994, code is a type of social semiotic. Social semiotic is code system used for communication by a group of people such as traffic light, zebra cross, language, etc. in other words it can be said that a code is symbolic order of meaning created by social system. Some linguists agree that language or variety of language is called code. The code here refers to the language used by a certain group of people to communicate. The language is also used either in the society, in the family or in the teaching learning process. In brief, it can be said that teachers and students communicate each other using language. Language is a means of communication for them. In English classes, English teachers are expected to use English. However, they tend to use their native language like Indonesia or Javanese in order that they can easily convey their message to their students. The changing from English to native language is called code switching. People from non- English speaking countries tend to change either their language or variety of language such as dialect when they converse with the English teachers or with the native speakers of English. According to Wardhaugh 1988, there are two types of code switching such as situational code switching and metaphorical code switching. The former happens when the conversant speaks in one language, in one situation and another in a different one. No topic change is involved. The latter when a change in topic requires a change in the language used. I need the theory above as the teachers speak Indonesian, Javanese, Sundanese instead of English in teaching learning process so in this situation they apply situational code switching. They speak in Indonesian in one situation and speak English as well as local dialects in different one but the topic of conversation does not change. The teachers’ scaffolding talks can be used in many terms of the purposes of using it. The important issue is that what is possible causes trigging the use of certain speech functions in the teachers’ scaffolding talks. To answer the questions is by identifying the code switching performed in teachers scaffolding talks and certain speech functions realized in them. By doing this, the possible causes trigging use of certain speech functions will be recognized and can be elaborated more in details. While explaining the possible causes trigging the use of certain speech functions performed by teachers in the scaffolding talks, it is necessary to analyze the grammatical structures. In other words, the writer can say that there is a connection between semantic choice of using certain speech functions and the grammatical structures, which are realized in it. The grammatical structures can be mood and modality, and transitivity. Both are called linguistic features. The forms of linguistic features in this study can be formulaic expression, such as mood and modality, transitivity etc. Teachers’ scaffolding talks carry interpersonal meaning. The interpersonal meaning relies on the mood. The mood consists of subject and finite that is used to express the process part of the clause that can be negotiated. A nominal group realizes the subject. It is the element of which the clause can be negotiated and the subject is responsible for the proposal, such as: to comply, to agree, to check, and to refuse, etc. The finite is part of verbal group. It makes the clause negotiable by coding it as positive or negative and by grounding it either in term of time or modality. In teacher’s scaffolding talk, the dimension of mood at the clause level is the major pattern that enacts role and role relation, with the associated subsystem of polarity and modality. Mood assigns the clause type as interrogative, imperative, or declarative. While polarity concerns with whether clause elements are asserted or negated and modality is the range of option open to participants to temper on quality of their message Eggin and Slades 1997. Dealing with mood, Gerot and Wignel 1995 suggests that mood in English is realized by the position in the clause of the subject and finite. The following is the classification of mood stated by Gerot and Wignel. Figure 2. 2 Classif icat ion of Mood suggest ed by Gerot and Wignel 1995 Declarat ive Indicat ive polar int errogat ive Mood Wh- quest ion Imperat ive To make the concept of mood clear, I will explain each mood type mentioned above: 1. Indicative mood is realized by the feature Subject + Finite. The order of subject and finite realizes declarative and interrogative. a. Declarative, e.g. That car had four bicycle wheels. b. Interrogative is divided into two namely: 1 Polar YesNo questions e.g Did Henry Ford build his first car in the backyard? 2 Wh-questios e.g. What is that thing? The Wh-questions can be used for: a Querying residue, e.g. Where did Henry Ford build his first car? b Exclamatives, e.g. What big eyes you have 2. Imperative, e.g. Don’t put it there. Modality consists of probability, usually obligation and readiness. Modality indicates the speakers’ judgment of probabilities or obligation involved in what the speakers say and it give additional meaning related to the participants’ judgments. Modality has two types of modalization and modulation. Modalization is a way of tempering the categorical nature of the information we exchange. Modalization has two types namely probability and usualty. While the definition of modulation is a way of tempering the directness with which we seek to act upon each other. The modulation has three types i.e. obligation, inclination and capability. Concerning about a clause as exchange, it can be defined that a full clause contains mood comprising of subject, finite and residue. Residue shows element of predicator realized as the verb part, complement and adjustment Gerot and Wignell 1995. The other circumstance in which a clause does not show mood and residue structure is called minor speech function Halliday 1995 :95. Minor speech functions consist of inclination, calls, greeting, and alarms. They are in the form of a word or phrase, such as, okay, you, good morning, come on, etc. Here is the basic mood classes according to Eggin and Slades 1997 that happen in conversation. Table 2.6 Quoted from Eggin et al.1997:75 Mood Type Example Declarative Full He plays Declarative Elliptical This year Imperative Full Look at that man walking up there Imperative Elliptical Look Wh- Interrogative Fu|l Where are you gonna all …? Polar Interrogative Full Yeach – But what is it? Polar Interrogative Elliptical Does he? Exclamative Full What rubbish you talk Brad Exclamative Elliptical What rubbish Minor Right. Teachers’ scaffolding talks are formed from a string of words that are formed in a certain clause. The clause is the basic unit in this activity. The clause is the representation of the teachers’ scaffolding talks. The teachers’ scaffolding talks have certain structure that is called temporary structure having function to give an aid to the students to comprehend the lesson. The clause as representation of the teachers scaffolding talks is the focus on this talk. The speech functions in these scaffolding talks are not only realized by mood structure but transitivity as well. Transitivity consists of circumstances, process and participants, of forms linguistic structures as Eggins 1994: 274 states that transitivity is selecting process type to use what configuration of participant to express, and the participants to represent experience in a particular way. In line with the statement above, Gerot and Wignell 1994:52 coin that there are three variables of transitivity which are represented as linguistic structures, namely: 1 Circumstances realized by adverb, 2 Process, realized by verbs and 3 participants realizes by things or by interpersonal and experiential meaning. Transitivity is configuration of participants associated with different process Richards, 1996:73. Process is central to transitivity participants and circumstances are incumbent upon the doing, happening, feeling and being Gerot and Wignell, 1999:54.The meaning of transitivity in this study will be used to analyze the utterances that occur in teachers scaffolding talk. Based on the statement above it can be said that transitivity is a linguistic structures that consist of variables, namely: 1 Process, refers to the action in the class, 2 Circumstances, refers to how, when and 3 participants refer to doer and the receiver of action. To unfold about the patterns of transitivity let me elaborate those patterns found in Gerot and Wignell 1995: 52-53. 1. Circumstances are divided into some elements, namely: a. manner: tells how e.g. he goes by taxi b. cause : tells why e.g. The ship died of thirst c. Accompaniment: tells with out who or what and is probed by who or what else? E.g.: I left work without my briefcase. d. Matter: tells about what or with reference to what and is probed by what about? e.g. This book is talking about functional grammar. e. Role: tells what as e.g., He lived a quiet life as a bookkeeper. 2. Processes are the central of transitivity; there are seven different process types adopted from Gerot and Wignell 1995 and Halliday 1994 a. Material Process: Process of doing or happening. Participants are actor and goal. Process types: action and event. The Younger wiggled in his seat Participant Process Circumstance Jack fell down Actor Material Goal b. Mental Process: Process of sensing, seeing, feeling or thinking. Participants: senser or phenomenon. Process types: perception, affection, and cognition. Mark likes clothes Senser Mental: Affect Phenomenon I realize the difficulties Senser Mental : Cognition Phenomenon c. Verbal Process: Process of saying. Participants: sayer or target. Process type: verbal. The sign says “no smoking” Sayer Verbal Material John told Jenny a rude jokes Sayer Verbal Receiver Verbiage d. Relational Process: Process of being, attributing or identifying. Participants for attributing: carrier or attribute. While participants for identifying is identified, identifier; token, value. Process type: attribution or identification. Barry Tuckwell is a fire horn people Carrier Attributive Attribute Barry Tuckwell may be the first living horn player Token Identifying Value e. Existential Process: Process of existing. Participants: existent. There is unicorn in the garden Existential Existent Circumstances : Place There was a blood stain on my jacket Existential Existent Circumstances : Place f. Meteorological Process: Process of weathering. It is hot It is windy Process : Meteorological g. Extra Participants Causation Process: The process s coded as having an external cause; i.e. another participant is necessary to bring the process into being. h. The devil made me do it Initiator Actor Material Goal She drives me crazy Attributor Attributive Carrier Attribute They call me Bruce Assigner Identifying Value Token i. Participants or Relational Process It is process of being and having. To make relational process clear, I would like to elaborate it. See relational process network stated by Gerot and Wignell 1995:68. Figure 2.3 Relational Process Network by Gerot and Wignell 1995 Attributive: carrier, attribute Identifying: Token, Value Relational Process Intensive Possessive Circumstantial

2.9.3 Classroom Interaction and Teachers Role in Teaching Learning