Instruction can not be separated by the teacher in teaching learning process as it always appears in it, in the form asking the students what to do and
not to do. To make the instruction easy to accept by the students, the teachers try to introduce the use of more formal and complicated terms with familiar terms so
that through this parallelism children could see the equivalencies in meaning. The choices of word that teachers used are intended to help the students know and
remember the instruction before they complete the tasks given. Relating to the statements above, Gibbons 2002:21 coins that the
teachers’ instructions carry a lot of speech functions. Those speech functions are in the form of statements, questions, offers, and commands Slades and Eggins,
1997. We can find those speech functions in teachers’ scaffolding talks. In order to be clear I try to unfold the speech functions in detail.
2.9.2 Speech Functions in Teachers Scaffolding Talks
As we know that we speak using a certain language, the language used differs from certain extent such as daily communication or casual conversation in
the world. We need a language. Language is always involved in it. In line with the statements above Halliday says that whenever we use
language, there is a context, either context of situation or context of culture. Context of situation is the particular opportunity, which the language is being
used, while context of culture means that the speakers within a culture share particular assumptions and expectation so that they can take for granted the ways
in which things are done.
The use of language from one to other purposes is different. Language has many features and the features vary regarding to the context of situation. Three
features that characterize this context: 1 what is being talked or written about is called field; 2 the relationship between speakers the writer or the reader is
called tenor; and 3 whether the language is spoken or written is called mode Gibbons, 2002: 20.
Those features above are also called register of text. According to Wardhaugh 1998:48 registers are set of vocabulary items associated with
discrete occupational or social group. Register also can be found in the main talk and teachers’ scaffolding talks Ellis, 1985:145 as we can see in the teaching
learning process, the interactional devices that the teacher used are realized in their talks through register that they select. They depend on the style of talks they
have. In shorts, the style of talks they have is called register. In accordance with the statements above, Halliday and Hasan, also claim
that register of a text consisting of three variables, namely: 1 field, 2 tenor and 3 mode. 1 Field refers to the topic of the text, 2 Tenor, refers to the
relationship between the speaker and the listener or writer and reader, and 3 mode, refers to the channel of the communication Gibbon, 2002:2.
The type of text under my study is teachers’ scaffolding talks; they belong to spoken text or oral discourse. Based on the statement above, I can say that the
register in my study is also included in determining types of teachers’ scaffolding talks as the talks are realized in the speech. The selection of speech used in
teachers’ talks is varied according to the purpose of the talk. It refers to the ability
of a child or a learner in using certain speech to make a concept. The choice of speech becomes the style of their talk they have. It is called register.
The register is also realized in teachers’ talks in giving a lesson classroom discourse because teachers use certain language in teaching learning process.
Their language can be either in Javanese, Indonesian, or both of them, or English with simple grammar. The styles of their talks using those languages are also
called register. The goal is to help the learners to understand the expression desired easily step by step in linear fashion and organize those steps using those
languages with the goal to make the students easy to achieve the target language easily.
The type of text here is called the spoken text. The topic under my study is the scaffolding talk. In this situation, the class is the highest unit of talk in the
structure of classroom discourse. In this study, the classroom discourse is formed from the combination of main talks and scaffolding talks, which is manifested in
the term of class or a lesson. Sinclair and Coulthard 1975 say that the rank scale of classroom
discourse is realized as act, move, exchange, transaction and lesson. Willis 1992 provides a method of analyzing and describing the language used in foreign
language based on an adaptation and extension of Sinclair on Coulthard model 1975.
The spoken text here is the teachers’ scaffolding talks. Teachers’ scaffolding talk is realized in the choice of speech function that the teachers use.
Each carries on different purposes. The speech functions used by the teachers’ in
their scaffolding talks involve the speaker that is the teacher and the listener that is
the student. In this situation it occurs interaction between the speaker and the listener. Both make relationship through their negotiation in meaning. The
negotiation that they make is realized in the process of exchange. As Eggin and Slades 1997 say that dialog is a process of exchange
involving two variables namely: 1 a commodity to be exchanged: either information statement and question or 2 role associated exchange relation:
either giving or demanding. The teachers’ scaffolding talks are based on the speech functions the
teachers chosen to convey their ideas. It can be in the form of teachers’ instruction, support, and guidance in order to help the learners to understand the
desired expression. The teachers’ instructions carry a lot of speech functions as shown in the table below.
Table 2.5 Scaffolding Interaction Gibbon, 2002:22 Teacher’s Words
Commentary You have to place a
magnet, put a magnet, into the cradle, and place
another magnet on top of the cradle magnet.
Teacher refers to the written instruction, introduces less well-
known word place alongside more familiar word put.
So you’ve got one magnet in here
Pointing Then you have to put
another magnet on top, right?
Holding the second magnet, indicating where it must be placed
but not actually placing it
Then you have to alternate the magnets
Alternate is said slowly and with emphasis
It says “alternating the poles” … changing the
poles. Models the more formal word
alternate but uses this along with a familiar “everyday word” change;
also holds the second magnet and indicated how the magnet should be
turned
Therefore, if you put it fetching like this … you
have it one way like this. Demonstrating
Then you change the poles around
Indicating the movement by turning the second magnet in the air but not
placing it
Change it to the other side, alternate the poles
Switches between more and less formal terms.
So you’re trying it each way
Summarizing what the children should do
In other words, I can say that the use of scaffolding in the lesson shows how the teachers use the scaffolding instruction in order to make the students
understand what they have to do. The speech functions used in the teacher’s scaffolding instructions are introducing, pointing, indicating, emphasizing,
demonstrating, and summarizing. Those speech functions realized in the teachers’ scaffolding talks.
The teachers’ scaffolding talk under my study is the scaffolding talks used in giving a lesson in a classroom through some stages either in Javanese,
Indonesian or in English. In lines with the statements above, Wardhaugh 1998 says that a code is a system used for communication between two or more parties.
According to Halliday 1994, code is a type of social semiotic. Social semiotic is code system used for communication by a group of people such as traffic light,
zebra cross, language, etc. in other words it can be said that a code is symbolic order of meaning created by social system.
Some linguists agree that language or variety of language is called code. The code here refers to the language used by a certain group of people to
communicate. The language is also used either in the society, in the family or in the teaching learning process. In brief, it can be said that teachers and students
communicate each other using language. Language is a means of communication for them.
In English classes, English teachers are expected to use English. However, they tend to use their native language like Indonesia or Javanese in
order that they can easily convey their message to their students. The changing from English to native language is called code switching. People from non-
English speaking countries tend to change either their language or variety of language such as dialect when they converse with the English teachers or with the
native speakers of English. According to Wardhaugh 1988, there are two types of code switching
such as situational code switching and metaphorical code switching. The former
happens when the conversant speaks in one language, in one situation and another in a different one. No topic change is involved. The latter when a change in topic
requires a change in the language used. I need the theory above as the teachers speak Indonesian, Javanese, Sundanese instead of English in teaching learning
process so in this situation they apply situational code switching. They speak in Indonesian in one situation and speak English as well as local dialects in different
one but the topic of conversation does not change. The teachers’ scaffolding talks can be used in many terms of the purposes
of using it. The important issue is that what is possible causes trigging the use of certain speech functions in the teachers’ scaffolding talks. To answer the
questions is by identifying the code switching performed in teachers scaffolding talks and certain speech functions realized in them. By doing this, the possible
causes trigging use of certain speech functions will be recognized and can be elaborated more in details.
While explaining the possible causes trigging the use of certain speech functions performed by teachers in the scaffolding talks, it is necessary to analyze
the grammatical structures. In other words, the writer can say that there is a connection between semantic choice of using certain speech functions and the
grammatical structures, which are realized in it. The grammatical structures can be mood and modality, and transitivity. Both are called linguistic features. The forms
of linguistic features in this study can be formulaic expression, such as mood and modality, transitivity etc.
Teachers’ scaffolding talks carry interpersonal meaning. The interpersonal meaning relies on the mood. The mood consists of subject and finite that is used
to express the process part of the clause that can be negotiated. A nominal group realizes the subject. It is the element of which the clause can be negotiated and the
subject is responsible for the proposal, such as: to comply, to agree, to check, and to refuse, etc. The finite is part of verbal group. It makes the clause negotiable by
coding it as positive or negative and by grounding it either in term of time or modality.
In teacher’s scaffolding talk, the dimension of mood at the clause level is the major pattern that enacts role and role relation, with the associated subsystem
of polarity and modality. Mood assigns the clause type as interrogative, imperative, or declarative. While polarity concerns with whether clause elements
are asserted or negated and modality is the range of option open to participants to temper on quality of their message Eggin and Slades 1997.
Dealing with mood, Gerot and Wignel 1995 suggests that mood in English is realized by the position in the clause of the subject and finite. The
following is the classification of mood stated by Gerot and Wignel.
Figure 2. 2 Classif icat ion of Mood suggest ed by Gerot and Wignel 1995
Declarat ive
Indicat ive polar
int errogat ive Mood
Wh- quest ion Imperat ive
To make the concept of mood clear, I will explain each mood type mentioned above:
1. Indicative mood is realized by the feature Subject + Finite. The order of
subject and finite realizes declarative and interrogative. a. Declarative, e.g. That car had four bicycle wheels.
b. Interrogative is divided into two namely: 1 Polar YesNo questions
e.g Did Henry Ford build his first car in the backyard? 2 Wh-questios
e.g. What is that thing? The Wh-questions can be used for:
a Querying residue, e.g. Where did Henry Ford build his first car?
b Exclamatives, e.g. What big eyes you have 2.
Imperative, e.g. Don’t put it there. Modality consists of probability, usually obligation and readiness.
Modality indicates the speakers’ judgment of probabilities or obligation involved in what the speakers say and it give additional meaning related to the participants’
judgments. Modality has two types of modalization and modulation. Modalization is a way of tempering the categorical nature of the information we exchange.
Modalization has two types namely probability and usualty. While the definition of modulation is a way of tempering the directness with which we seek to act
upon each other. The modulation has three types i.e. obligation, inclination and capability.
Concerning about a clause as exchange, it can be defined that a full clause contains mood comprising of subject, finite and residue. Residue shows element
of predicator realized as the verb part, complement and adjustment Gerot and Wignell 1995.
The other circumstance in which a clause does not show mood and residue structure is called minor speech function Halliday 1995 :95. Minor speech
functions consist of inclination, calls, greeting, and alarms. They are in the form of a word or phrase, such as, okay, you, good morning, come on, etc.
Here is the basic mood classes according to Eggin and Slades 1997 that happen in conversation.
Table 2.6 Quoted from Eggin et al.1997:75 Mood Type
Example Declarative Full
He plays
Declarative Elliptical This
year Imperative
Full Look at that man walking up
there Imperative Elliptical
Look Wh- Interrogative Fu|l
Where are you gonna all …? Polar
Interrogative Full
Yeach – But what is it?
Polar Interrogative
Elliptical Does he?
Exclamative Full
What rubbish you talk Brad Exclamative
Elliptical What rubbish
Minor Right.
Teachers’ scaffolding talks are formed from a string of words that are formed in a certain clause. The clause is the basic unit in this activity. The
clause is the representation of the teachers’ scaffolding talks. The teachers’ scaffolding talks have certain structure that is called temporary structure having
function to give an aid to the students to comprehend the lesson. The clause as representation of the teachers scaffolding talks is the focus on this talk. The
speech functions in these scaffolding talks are not only realized by mood structure but transitivity as well.
Transitivity consists of circumstances, process and participants, of forms linguistic structures as Eggins 1994: 274 states that transitivity is selecting
process type to use what configuration of participant to express, and the
participants to represent experience in a particular way. In line with the statement above, Gerot and Wignell 1994:52 coin that there are three variables of
transitivity which are represented as linguistic structures, namely: 1 Circumstances realized by adverb, 2 Process, realized by verbs and 3
participants realizes by things or by interpersonal and experiential meaning. Transitivity is configuration of participants associated with different
process Richards, 1996:73. Process is central to transitivity participants and circumstances are incumbent upon the doing, happening, feeling and being Gerot
and Wignell, 1999:54.The meaning of transitivity in this study will be used to analyze the utterances that
occur in teachers scaffolding talk. Based on the statement above it can be said that transitivity is a linguistic
structures that consist of variables, namely: 1 Process, refers to the action in the class, 2 Circumstances, refers to how, when and 3 participants refer to doer
and the receiver of action. To unfold about the patterns of transitivity let me elaborate those patterns found in Gerot and Wignell 1995: 52-53.
1. Circumstances are divided into some elements, namely: a.
manner: tells how e.g. he goes by taxi b.
cause : tells why e.g. The ship died of thirst c.
Accompaniment: tells with out who or what and is probed by who or what else? E.g.: I left work without my briefcase.
d. Matter: tells about what or with reference to what and is probed by what
about? e.g. This book is talking about functional grammar. e.
Role: tells what as e.g., He lived a quiet life as a bookkeeper.
2. Processes are the central of transitivity; there are seven different process types adopted from Gerot and Wignell 1995 and Halliday 1994
a. Material Process: Process of doing or happening. Participants are actor
and goal. Process types: action and event.
The Younger wiggled
in his seat Participant
Process Circumstance Jack fell
down Actor
Material Goal
b. Mental Process: Process of sensing, seeing, feeling or thinking. Participants:
senser or phenomenon. Process types: perception, affection, and cognition. Mark likes
clothes Senser Mental:
Affect Phenomenon
I realize the
difficulties Senser
Mental :
Cognition Phenomenon
c. Verbal Process: Process of saying. Participants: sayer or target. Process type:
verbal. The sign
says “no smoking”
Sayer Verbal Material
John told
Jenny a rude jokes
Sayer Verbal Receiver Verbiage
d. Relational Process: Process of being, attributing or identifying. Participants
for attributing: carrier or attribute. While participants for identifying is identified, identifier; token, value. Process type: attribution or identification.
Barry Tuckwell is
a fire horn people Carrier Attributive
Attribute
Barry Tuckwell may be
the first living horn player Token Identifying
Value
e. Existential Process: Process of existing. Participants: existent.
There is unicorn
in the garden Existential Existent
Circumstances :
Place
There was a blood stain
on my jacket Existential
Existent Circumstances : Place
f. Meteorological Process: Process of weathering.
It is
hot It is
windy Process
: Meteorological
g. Extra Participants Causation Process: The process s coded as having an
external cause; i.e. another participant is necessary to bring the process into being.
h. The devil
made me do it
Initiator Actor
Material Goal
She drives
me crazy
Attributor Attributive Carrier
Attribute
They call me Bruce
Assigner Identifying Value
Token
i. Participants or Relational Process
It is process of being and having. To make relational process clear, I would like to elaborate it. See relational process network stated by Gerot and Wignell
1995:68. Figure 2.3 Relational Process Network by Gerot and Wignell 1995
Attributive: carrier, attribute Identifying: Token, Value
Relational Process Intensive Possessive
Circumstantial
2.9.3 Classroom Interaction and Teachers Role in Teaching Learning