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goal also Nunan, 1988, p. 3. This second major goal is related to the development of learner autonomy and independent learning skills; hence, the relevance of the learner-
centered curriculum and the learner-centered philosophy to post-modern education and language learning.
The conclusion that can be drawn is that learner-centeredness is a big, natural consequence of language teaching that emphasizes the development of the learner’s
and the teacher’s potential in getting things done with the new language and the development of learning skills to attain learner autonomy or independence. Realizing
hisher important position, the teacher should step by step try to become a local learning designer himselfherself in order to practice learner centeredness in hisher job.
2. Language Learning Design Models
The term ‘learning design’ here replaces the more popular ‘instructional design’ to reflect the current view that learning done by the learner is considered a key
educational process and the teacher’s instruction just helps it happen. This is to reflect
the centrality of learning and the learner proposed in postmodern education. A learning designer uses an approach which is now known as educational research and
development educational R D. Educational R D is a research-based approach to the development of new programs and materials to improve education. In Gall, et al.
2007 educational R D is part of evaluation research, which itself is under educational research. The following are brief reviews of several learning design models
that influence the development of the writer’s design model.
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a. Learning Design Models In this section two learning design models are briefly discussed.
1 Borg and Gall’s Model
R D was originally used in industry to design new products and procedures, which were then field-tested, evaluated, and refined to meet certain standards. Based on
this model, in the 1960’s educational R D was developed in the U.S. Through program evaluation and program development
– that is, through educational R D – the government tried to improve education Gall, et al, 2007, p. 589
The following are the ten steps developed by Borg and Gall 1983 that often become the umbrella of
most learning design developments. Step 1: Research and Information Collecting
Step 2: Planning Step 3: Developing preliminary form of product
Step 4: Preliminary field testing Step 5: Main product revision
Step 6: Main Field testing
Step 7: Operational product revision Step 8: Operational field testing
Step 9: Final product revision Step 10: Dissemination and implementation
In fact, Borg and Gall’s model can be simplified using a framework developed by Thiagarajan, Semmel, and Semmel 1974 called 4-D Model quoted in Barus, 2008:
pp. 47-48: Defining, Designing, Developing, and Dissemination. The first two steps of Borg and Gall’s Model Research and information collecting, Planning correspond to
Defining of the 4-D Model.
Borg and Gall’s steps 3, 4, and 5 Developing preliminary form of product, Preliminary field testing, and Main product revision correspond to
Designing. Under Developing of the 4-D Model
one can put Borg and Gall’s steps 6, 7,
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8, and 9 Main field testing, Operational product revision, Operational field testing, and Final product revision. Finally, the last step Dissemination and implementation is put
under Dissemination of the 4-D Model. 2 Dick, Carey,
and Carey’s Model Borg and Gall have revised their book and in their revision they refer to the
model of Systems Approach of Educational Research and Development developed by Dick, Carey, and Carey Gall, Gall, and Borg, 2007: 589-592. This systems approach
model is considered as a widely used model of educational R D. The following are the ten steps used in the model:
Step 1: Identify instructional goals which often includes a needs assessment
Step 2: Conduct instructional analysis which identifies the specific skills, procedures, and learning tasks to reach
goals Step 3: Analyze learners and contexts
which identifies the learners’ entry-level skills and attitudes, the characteristics of the instructional setting, and the characteristics of the settings
in which the new knowledge and skills will be used
Step 4: Write performance objectives which also provides the basis for precise planning of assessment instruments,
instructional strategies, and instructional materials Step 5: Develop assessment instruments
the instruments being directly related to the knowledge and skills specified in the performance objectives
Step 6: Develop instructional strategy to assist learners with their efforts to achieve each performance objective
Step 7: Develop and select instructional materials which may include print materials or other media and lesson plans
Step 8: Design and conduct formative evaluation of instruction done to support the process of improving the effectiveness of the program or
product Step 9: Revise instruction
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Step 10: Design and conduct summative evaluation conducted to determine how worthwhile the final program is, usually done by
an independent evaluator.
The initial stage includes step 1 which may involve a needs assessment, step 2 which includes identification of skills, procedures, and learning tasks, and step 3
which includes identification of the learners’ entry-level skills and attitudes, and the characteristics of the instructional settings and the settings where the new skills will be
used. The development stage includes step 4, step 5 which is based on performance objectives, step 6 which aims to achieve each performance objective, and step 7
which includes print materials or other media, and lesson plans or instruction guidelines. The evaluation stage includes step 8 to increase the effectiveness of the
product or program, step 9, and step 10 to determine the worth of the final product or program, usually not done by the designer and not considered as part of the design
process. It should be noted that the results of formative evaluation step 8 can be used to
revise what has been done from step 1 to step 7 while the program is still in progress. Dick, Carey, and Carey suggest a three-level process of formative evaluation: one
evaluator working with one learner, then with six to eight students, and finally with a whole class of the learners a field trial. Qualitative methods are primarily used in the
first two processes e.g., interviewing and observation by the designer to refine and expand the program. In a field trial, quantitave methods of evaluation tend to be used
here e.g., using performance tests or self-report ratings to decide whether the intended objectives are achieved or not.
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b. Major Viewpoints in Yalden’s and Dubin and Olshtain’s Models
In regard to the initial stage, the writer discusses below how learning design models e.g., Yalden’s model and Dubin and Olshtain’s model which are specifically
written for language teaching and learning incorporate language and language learning viewpoints in their design models. Those viewpoints as part of general goals in a design
process are essential in a language learning design. In fact, Dubin and Olshtain added another viewpoint alongside the language and language learning viewpoints:
educational-cultural viewpoint 1986, p. 34. 1 Language Viewpoint
The inclusion of language viewpoint in Yalden’s communicative syllabus model can be directly seen at the fourth stage of the eight stages of language program
development: “Stage IV: The proto-syllabus: a description of language and language use to be covere
d in the program” Yalden, 1987, p. 89. This reflects the importance of a language viewpoint in the development of a language learning design:
Stage I : Needs Survey
Stage II : Description of purpose
Stage III : Selectiondevelopment of syllabus type
Stage IV : Production of a proto-syllabus description of language and
language use Stage V
: Production of a pedagogical syllabus development of approaches Stage VI
: Development and implementation of classroom procedures Stage VII : Evaluation
Stage VIII : Recycling stage.
Dubin and Olshtain put the language viewpoint together with language learning and educational-cultural viewpoints at the initial stage of the development of a
course design. These viewpoints are found in the statements of goals. According to
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Dubin Olshtain, any language learning curriculum has general goals that reflect three viewpoints: a viewpoint on the nature of language, a viewpoint on the nature of
language learning , and an educational-cultural viewpoint 1986, p. 34.
From the two models mentioned above it is obvious that a viewpoint of the nature of language is of great importance. Dubin and Olshtain subscribe to
communicative language teaching theory and name the viewpoint as sociocultural
views on the nature of language 1986, pp. 69-70. The most important concept
developed here is communicative competence. Knowing a language includes not only the form of the language, but also knowledge of what to say, when, how, where, and to
whom. Similarly, Yalden explicitly gives a communicative label to the whole syllabus design. In Stage 4 of her model description of language and language use to be covered
in the program the proto-syllabus to be developed is a communicative syllabus and it contains communicative content such as notions, communicative functions, specific
topics, communicative events, rhetorical skills, etc. 2 Language Learning Viewpoint
Dubin and Olshtain consider that a language learning viewpoint is one of the three basic viewpoints together with a language viewpoint and of an educational-
cultural one. They elaborate the language learning viewpoint under communicative language teaching
theory. In communicative goals, cognitively-based views of language learning are taken as the language learning viewpoint. They discuss strategies
and tactics, context-embedded and context-reduced language use, and the holistic approach to language learning 1986, pp. 70-74.
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3 Educational-Cultural Viewpoint An educational-cultural viewpoint gives a context to a language learning
curriculum. Dubin and Olshtain mention humanistic views of education for the development of communicative goals. Such a curriculum emphasizes sharing of control,
negotiation, and joint responsibility by learners. In this type of curriculum thinking, feelings, and action should be stressed. The main goal is to develop the whole person
within a human society McNeil as quoted by Dubin and Olshtain, 1986, p. 75. Besides, the humanistic curriculum influences the emphasis on learner-centered
pedagogy , which is in line with post-modern education.
The following is an elaboration of language learning principles which can be considered as the more operational principles combining the three viewpoints above,
with the focus on the elaboration of language learning viewpoint. The principles are summarized from second language learning principles found in Brown, 2001, pp. 55-
70. c. Realizations of Major Viewpoints in
Brown’s Second Language Learning Principles The principles are divided into three major ones: the cognitive principles, the
affective principles, and the linguistic principles. First, the cognitive principles consist of five principles: automaticity, meaningful learning, the anticipation of reward,
intrinsic motivation, and strategic investment. In order to efficiently reach automaticity, the functional purposes of language should be the focal point. Too much focus on
analyzing language forms hinders automaticity a great deal. Meaningful learning should be created by exploiting the learner’s existing knowledge, background, interests, and
goals. This will lead toward hisher better long term retention. The anticipation of
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reward means that the learner is driven to act whenin anticipation of receiving praise,
encouragement, supportive action, and other techniques of giving reward. Expecting to be given reward, heshe is likely to learn more enthusiastically.
The learner’s intrinsic motivation
will emerge by making the learning process interesting, useful, and challenging, a principle that any teacher will agree with but that is hard to implement.
The assumption in strategic investment is that each learner has hisher own personal battery of strategies for comprehending and producing language. The learning process
should recognize this and individual attention is needed. A variety of techniques is needed to ‘serve’ different strategies all learners have.
Second, the affective principles consist of four principles: language ego, self- confidence, risk taking, and the language-culture connection. In order to pay attention
to learners’ language ego a supportive attitude on the part of the teacher is necessary. A
learner may feel silly, humiliated, or unsure in face-to-face communication, and the teacher’s and classmates’ patience and empathy are needed to minimize these negative
feelings. The learner’s self-confidence is needed in order to be successful in
accomplishing a task. Verbal and non-verbal assurances to learners are needed. Easy to more difficult techniques also help the learner build a sense of accomplishment. Risk
taking is required in using language for meaningful purposes and, therefore, all learners
should be encouraged to initiate communication. Their risky attempts to communicate should be positively responded. The language-culture connection refers to the fact that
learning a language cannot be separated from learning the culture of its speakers. Cross- cultural understanding is, accordingly, very important for language learners. Certain
activities and materials related to language and culture should be included.
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Third, the linguistic principles consist of the native language effect, interlanguage, and communicative competence. To reduce the interfering native
language effect s on production and comprehension of the target language, thinking
directly in the target language is recommended. The use of translation should be minimized. A learner’s systematic interlanguage errors are indicators that innate
language acquisition abilities are ‘alive and well’ and still developing. Feedback from the teacher should encourage himher to produce the target language, not to discourage
himher from speaking. The last linguistic principle refers to the conviction that all learning
efforts should be directed towards the achievement of the learner’s communicative competence
. Language use, fluency, authentic language and contexts, and the learner’s need to apply what heshe has learnt to real world contexts are
essential ways of achieving communicative goals. All the second language learning principles above are not meant to be exhaustive, especially related to the self-
actualization goal of English language education, but they are sufficient for the initial attempt to identify post-modernself-actualization language learning principles.
The conclusion that can be drawn here is that at the defining stage major concepts such as educational-cultural and language learning viewpoints must be
decided first in order to give the goal statements basic orientation of the design or curriculum, which will influence the objectives, activities, material, and assessment. In
fact, these major concepts make up the theoretical approach to the design or curriculum. The basic educational-cultural orientation used in this study is taken from post-modern
education and, consequently, the communicative approach CLT is used to fill in the language and language learning viewpoints
. Brown’s learning principles above and
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similar principles taken from post-modern, constructivist language learning writings fill in the concrete activity and procedure columns. Besides, f
rom Borg and Gall’s model and Dick, Carey and Carey’s model it is essential for the designer to have a needs
analysis at the initial stage because finding learners’ needs reflects the view that a teaching-learning process should contain down-to-earth local objectives and activities.
In other words, it reflects locality and diversity. Borg and Gall’s three stages of testing
and revision and Dick, Carey, and Carey’s formative evaluation and revision are indeed important because they encourage the designer to augment the significance of locality
and diversity.
3. English Language Education
