Deceit means an act of keeping the truth hidden, especially to get an advantage. It is in this expression that the semantic properties negative intention and
to take advantage occur. Those two semantic properties are also shown in the similar expression, artifice. Artifice itself means the use of a clever trick or something
intended to deceive. It implies intention and advantage since a trick is understood as an action which is intended to deceive as a way of cheating someone. Hypocrisy,
unlike deceit and artifice, does not cover these two meanings. To illustrate it better, the table below shows the semantic properties of hypocrisy, deceit, and artifice.
hypocrisy deceit
artifice to deceive
+ +
+ negative intention
- +
+ to take advantage
- +
+ Table 11. Semantic properties of hypocrisy, deceit, and artifice
10. Challenger
Lexically, challenger means someone who tries to win a competition, fight or sports event from someone who has previously won it. Assad used this expression
when portraying those who pose a threat toward his country A7. The problem with this expression is that it is not merely a sporting event or competition that is being
discussed by Bashar al-Assad. Rather, it is a civil war that has been going on since July 2011. The expression challenger implies that the person does not have to harm
nor hurt the other person in order to win something. However, such is not the case in
a war. One party will have to defeat the other in such a harmful way such as destroying and murdering.
Compared to adversary which means an enemy or one that contends or resists with, challenger lacks the semantic property to harm. Although adversary does not
necessarily mean an enemy in a war, it implies the tendency to cause damage or harm to the opposing side due to the term enemy. Enemy itself is defined as a person who
hates or opposes another person and tries to harm them or stop them from doing something. The expression is conventionally used in describing an opposing party of
an armed fight between two or more groups or countries. Therefore, enemy covers the semantic properties to harm and war – the two semantic properties missing from the
expression challenger. In order to see the distinction between these three expressions, the table below shows the semantic properties of challenger, adversary, and enemy.
challenger adversary
enemy opposing side
+ +
+ to harm
- +
+ war
- ±
+ Table 12. Semantic properties of challenger, adversary, and enemy
11. Lackey
Lackey means a servant or someone who behaves like one by obeying someone else’s orders or by doing all their unpleasant work for them. In his speech,
Assad used lackey to address the people who have a strong bias in reporting and
