result of cultural and social construction. She develops her famous performative theory of gender which claims gender as what one does, not
what one is. Gender identity is not a form of intrinsic essence but it is a result of actions and behaviors, that is, performance. In other words, Butler argues
that everyday actions, gestures, speech utterances, representations, dress codes
and behaviors produce what is perceived as men or women or gender.
Gender difference as the result of social construction is the core of the cause of gender discrimination. The characteristics and behaviors that are
attributed to men and women by the society have created the separate spheres between them. Women are valued as weak creatures. Meanwhile, power and
authority remain in the hands of men and this is what causes discrimination against women. As it is stated by Morris 1993:1 that
“gender difference is the foundation of a structural inequality between women and men, by which
women suffer from systematic social injustice. ”
Gender discrimination exists in most parts of the world in many different forms. Fakih 2012:12-13 divides gender discrimination into five kinds,
namely marginalization, subordination, stereotype, violence and work load.
a. Marginalization
The first type of gender discrimination to be described is marginalization of women. Marginalization or alienation oppresses people by expelling them
from the participations in the social life Young, 1992:63t. Some categories of people are marginalized from public life because of their differences and
because they have no power. They are the people who live in the lack of
equality and are said as the dependent people. Young 1992:63 argues that marginalization is the most harmful form of oppression since whole people
– in this case are women
– cannot participate at all in public life and it can make the people suffer from material deprivation and even extermination.
Marginalization of women can occur in the work field, marriage, society or culture, and even state Fakih, 2012:15. In the work field, women often
face greater hindrance than men Sen, 2001:10. Many jobs are intended only for men and many women face obstacles to gain the higher position or
promotion than men. In family, women ‟s marginalization is strengthened by
the culture and religious interpretation, for instance, women get less inheritance than men Fakih, 2012:15.
In public life, women‟s marginalization limits women from gaining the
same rights of special opportunities and public facilities. The special opportunities of higher education are far fewer for girls than for boys.
According to Sen 2001:7, women in many countries in Asia and Africa, and also in Latin America have far less access to schooling than young men do.
Even in Afghanistan, the government is keen on actively expelling women from schooling. In some countries, the access of women to the public facilities
such as hospital is also limited.
b. Subordination
According to Sultana 201 0:7, “women‟s subordination means the
inferior position of women to men”. It also refers to the domination of
patriarchal society so that women are subjected and they face limited access to assets, limitation of decision making etc.
Furthermore, he states that women‟s subordination can happen because of the existance of men‟s power, women‟s
lack of self-esteem, self-confidence, and the feeling of powerlesness. Patriarchal system has shamelessly upheld women‟s subordination to men
in all spheres of life. Consequently, all the power and authority within the family, the society and the state remain entirely in the hands of men.
Meanwhile, women are only the second-class group of people. Thong 1989:2 affirms that subordination of women is rooted in a set of legal and
common restrictions that hamper women to join and gain the success in public life. The society tends underestimate women and considers men are and
physically and intellectually more capable than women. Hence, women are discriminated in the forum, marketplace and academy.
The different ways of seeing gender leads to the subordination of women. The belief that women are emotional and irrational has placed women in the
unimportant position. Subordination due to gender can occur in a number of ways which are different from a place and time to another. For example, in
Java in the past, there was a belief that women did not need to achieve high education because no matter how high the education women get, at the end
they would only be in the kitchen Fakih, 2012:15-16. In many poor families, boys get priority to go to school than girls Fakih, 2012:16. Another example
of women‟s subordination is a custom of preference for son over daughters. Parents‟ preference for boys rather than girls is a manifestation of gender
