Inheritance The Ideal Man Consequences of Broken Taboos

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6.5 Inheritance

Before the government and missions came, when a man died, his possessions were free for the taking as mentioned above. Clansmen and nonclansmen alike could come and claim his possessions. A few personal items, such as his axe and clothes, were left to the wife or wives and children. The gardens and trees belonging to the dead man were often cut and destroyed. This left the surviving family members with little or nothing at all. When this occurred, a member of the wife’s clan was obligated to take the family in to his home, provide for their needs, and prepare a new garden area for her. The provisions were to continue until the woman remarried or died. Today, there is much concern for the wellbeing of children. Bank accounts are started for sons and daughters. Coconut plantings are established in children’s names. The father’s property goes to the eldest and all questions about the property are directed to the eldest child, regardless of sex. If a daughter inherits the property, but marries and moves some distance away, the property goes to the next sibling in line after her. If the father, while still living, realizes that the son or daughter in line for the property is not sufficiently responsible to handle it, he may assign the responsibility to whomever he desires among his children. His decisions are followed quite closely. This, in general, is the pattern followed today. 79 7 Goals and Attitudes

7.1 The Ideal Man

“This is our day There is nothing that will keep us from reaching our goals.” This statement was made in an address by the government representative, Simon Pute, in August of 1977. In general, it is the attitude of the Rotokas people, who seem to exude self-confidence. The ideal personality includes two basic features: 1 a readiness to hear and consider advice from others, and 2 a diligent and conscientious response to work. The Rotokas people who live in the mountain villages are especially aware of the second consideration. There is an air of superiority over the coastal Rotokas people “who don’t work as hard as we do and spend a lot of time sleeping.” Also, the coastal people “don’t know how to grow good vegetables like the mountain people.” The people also have a reputation of being strong-willed. Some Australian government officers shared this opinion with us. It was one of these “kiaps” who gave the ultimatum that if an airstrip were made at Togarao, the government would withdraw their offer to help with the much-desired road up into the mountain villages. After this meeting, which the government officer, Rotokas men from three villages, and I attended, the local Rotokas councilor stated that they would still build the airstrip, if they wanted to. He gave the reason that it was an issue which really was up to the Rotokas people and not of concern to the government. In fact, the ability to speak out is very important to the Rotokas people. A man was elected village councilor because he was willing to speak out to the government officers and was argumentative. Talk can be a social deterrent as well. Some activities are considered inappropriate because of what might be said about the participants. A Rotokas man told me that the Highlander fights with his bows and arrows, whereas the Rotokas people fight with their words. Women’s ability to talk is clearly recognized; radios, tape recorders, etc. are all marked for feminine gender because these things “talk so much.” Generosity is also included in the characteristics of a good Rotokas person. Words such as sisirovira and tauvavuvira express the notion of generosity; of giving above and beyond what is needed. There are also words in the vocabulary used to describe the stingy person who doesn’t want to part with his goods for any reason. We certainly found the people to be generous and thoughtful during the many years which we lived among them. There was often the kovutara vovouto around—“the man who always thinks of other’s needs, the hospitable person.” Generosity is almost built into the social framework of the Rotokas. Visiting clansmen are taken in at a moment’s notice and the hospitality is reciprocated. An article that has been admired is often presented as a gift to the admirer mentioned in the section on the Upe hat. Another example of this was when a man was told, Uriou itova ousa, iria ivaouera, “Come and get the bananas which you complimented.” Being generous with an admired article, of course, leaves one in a good position to receive the next time around, although theoretically, there is no obligation to return the favor. Finally, the ideal man is honest and careful not to be secretive about his activities. Two word pictures demonstrate that acting in secret is not advisable: 1 kariava tavaovere or “the lizard will eventually sun itself,” and 2 tuituiie ora topu piepae or “the tuituiie bird returns to deepen the hole in the tree until it comes through the other side.” Both illustrations say the same, i.e., something that seems hidden or obstructed from view will eventually be exposed to the light and to view.

7.2 Attitudes

In the early part of the 1980s, representatives of villages located on Bougainville-Buka asked the Provincial Education Department to insure that, in particular, four ideals be taught and encouraged in the schools of the province. These four ideals were listed as: respect, cooperation, justice, and responsibility. The highest concern was for the respect of young people for their elders. There was also concern that traditional marriage customs be followed. Examples of respect for age groups, customs, etc. or lack of it are given in the following sections on attitudes. 80

7.2.1 Attitudes towards family and the aged

Three examples of attitudes displayed by certain Rotokas people give an overview of respect towards different age groups starting with the youngest. The councilor of Togarao village had five daughters when we came to live next door. His wife was expecting their sixth child. He was very hopeful that it would be a son. When his wife gave birth to another daughter, he was very angry. Unfortunately, the little girl was born with a deformed foot and a cleft palate. Because of these physical conditions and his desire for a son, the man reminded us from time to time that the child was a great disappointment. Over the years, we saw this attitude change, and today the teenage girl is a very happy part of the family. This same man would often see our tape recorder in operation during language analysis sessions. We would record his children’s voices and play it back for the family to hear. One day the father came to me and wanted us to buy a tape recorder for his children. He indicated that he actually wanted to buy a radio, but the children had asked for the tape recorder, so that was what he intended to buy. In those early years, tape recorders were not in common use and were very impractical. This fact did not seem to affect his commitment to satisfying the children’s desires. He was going to buy the recorder for the children’s sake. As it turned out, he lost interest after learning what the price was for tape recorders. The children seemed to love him just as much. It is interesting that in the years since, with income from cocoa and the popularization of tape recorders, there is no lack of expensive portable stereo sound equipment in Rotokas villages today. An expatriate nurse told us of an incident which reflected the attitude towards the very aged at that time 1968. While visiting a neighboring village, the residents asked her to look at a “sick old woman.” The nurse found the woman and guessed that they had left her to die. She was very hungry and thirsty, being too ill to get her own food. None was being supplied for her. She was living a short distance from the village in a hut with a meager supply of firewood. The old woman was seen lying on a banana leaf out in the village one day. I asked if she were sick. Another woman replied that she was and that she had said that her legs were too weak to walk to the Government Aid Post. The old woman knew that she would die soon. Someone else said to just leave her alone; that she would, in fact, die in the near future. No efforts were made to carry her to the Aid Post. Not a great deal of concern was shown for her as she lay there. The old woman somehow survived that ordeal and lived on. Some time later, she was again near death. She was considered past the recovery stage. A coffin was made for her. Again, however, she recovered to everyone’s surprise. As recently as 1982, the coffin was still unused. The old woman was as healthy as ever, carrying firewood and babysitting. In contrast to these examples of attitudes towards aged women, at the same time, there was a well-cared- for older woman living in Togarao village. Being strong enough to continue bringing firewood and gathering food for herself, she was no burden on the family. I believe it is important to note that in the early 1980s, as an effect of the “spiritual renewal” in the several Rotokas villages located in the upper Wakunai river valley, the attitude towards older people changed remarkably. Groups of young people took it upon themselves to gather firewood for the elderly. If an older person were unable to handle gardening chores, the young people would organize themselves to spend a day or more preparing a garden area, cleaning the garden, harvesting, or whatever was necessary. There was agreement among them that this was the right thing to do, according to the Bible.

7.2.2 Attitudes toward the sick

In several Rotokas stories, the man who was disliked very much was “the man with the sores.” He was always depicted as being unwanted by the women and disregarded by the men. One of the continuing health problems in the area is that of grille severe ringworm. The attitude of some parents is that their own children should not be handled by other children who have this skin infection. The councilor, in the early days, would not allow children with grille into his own house, and tried to forbid them to enter ours. The children themselves seemed to be unaware of any sanctions, since they played freely with infected children, wrestling and playing in close contact. We have heard some joking, or possibly even insults, with regards to adults whose skin is infected by grille. There was laughing and an embarrassed response. 81 Medicine to heal grille is available, although quite expensive, and the disease may recur. A neighbor boy took the course of medicine only to stop before its completion. In a short time, the grille had returned. An older girl took the course and was diligent to keep it under control. Eventually, it was cleared from her skin. The care of the mentally ill has been observed, but not closely nor to any extent. There are at least two kinds of insanity: one brought on by supernatural evil power called tutue the bush spirit associated with Mt. Balbi and one which covers the range from drunkenness, to foolishness, to being crazy. The term covering this range of behavior is kokoro. A crazy man is a kokoropato. In one instance, a young husband with either mental problems or spirit-related problems was patiently cared for by his wife. A clansman took it upon himself to spend time with the young man and to pray for his healing. This observation was over a two-week period only. In another village, an older woman with mental problems was living in the jungle. She had been asked to come into the village and to stay with her husband. She refused to do so, although she did leave her garden area and came in from time to time with food for her husband. An older acquaintance was plagued with spells of either insanity or spirit possession. He would “terrorize” the Asitavi Mission station by climbing into the bell tower to ring the bells in the early morning hours. One morning, around 3 a.m., he rang the breakfast bell. He had prepared rice for the High School girls living in dorms nearby. This man was considered “safe.” However, the children in the village would purposely aggravate him, causing him to chase them with a spear or with bow and arrows. At times, he was quite certain that the American Armed Forces would hear his “short-wave radio broadcasts” and come to his aid. The unfortunate fate of this old man was to die alone deep in the jungle. He had disappeared for some time when his bones were discovered by pig hunters. An identification was located nearby. Although people were concerned about his behavior, it appeared that no one was obliged to be responsible for his wellbeing during the final weeks of his life.

7.2.3 Attitudes towards marital relationships and adultery

Before the missions’ and Scriptural definitions of “sin” were taught, there were several acts which were definitely considered wrong. Adultery seems to have been near the top of the list in text materials collected. An example of this has already been given in the section on the Upe. A girl found pregnant by an Upe initiate was speared through the abdomen. The young man would have been punished, too, had he been caught. In general, this taboo was observed, and parents depended upon them to keep their young people from immoral sex acts. David A. cried when his son completed his initiation and an elder removed his Upe hat, because he knew that when his son was free of the binding taboos of initiation, he was more vulnerable to temptations of the “outside” ratau. At this time, having been exposed to the teachings of the missions and the Scriptures as well, there are definite attitudes against immorality and unfaithful spouses. A rather unique form of punishing one fickle man was thought of by the several women he claimed as his wives, each in turn. The story is that these women joined forces to get even with the man. They decided to kill him by repeatedly laying with him until he would die in a state of complete exhaustion. Whether or not the punishment was successful was not included in the story. Although children have been seen playing with each other’s genitals, for young people prior to marriage, it is considered strictly taboo to do the same.

7.2.4 Attitude towards propriety—obscenities

Our good friend and language teacher showed embarrassment when naming certain body parts, such as the excretory and genital organs. While explaining the words and meanings, he refrained from speaking aloud, but instead spelled them to me in a hushed voice. My wife was in his presence at the time, but was not in on the conversation, nor would she have recognized any of these new terms at that time. Later on, while still learning the language, I made a rather obvious error of saying “foreskin” goagoa instead of “boiling water” goagoara as had been my intention. The men with me thought it very funny, but did show some embarrassment during the mercifully brief discussion which followed. The following phrases are considered obscene and young people, especially, are reprimanded if caught using one of them: 82 takaapaaria “filth on the penis” takaa “filth on the anus” This is especially taboo for young people of the opposite sex to use, since it is considered an invitation to have intercourse. voakou “to discharge feces” viviko “to urinate” Probably the most common form of obscene talk. vao-ia vii reroaro “here under you” This refers to the genitals of either sex and is an invitation to have intercourse. aako roiri “You have intercourse with your mother.” kaakau roiri “You have intercourse with a dog.” Swear words from English are heard, but sometimes they are grossly misunderstood. Two men G. and R. were in a heated argument over some land. One G. had accused the other R. of trespassing on his property. In response he was called a “bastard.” This brought with it the possibility of being fined. David A., who overheard the argument, said to the men, “If you are going to swear at each other, then at least use Rotokas words so that you know what you are meaning.” He was, in fact, speaking for himself, too. As it turned out, he was also uncertain of the meaning. I questioned him about the phrase that was used, “Bastard shit.” The pronunciation in Rotokas was more like, “mastat seet.” This man explained what he thought it meant in this way. When someone uses the phrase “mastat seet,” he is wishing that much trouble will develop for you just as a “mastat seet” mustard seed grows from a small beginning into a very large tree as attested to in the parable of the Scriptures. When I explained about the offspring of an adulterous relationship and about manure, we both had a good laugh Although the children are, for the most part, corrected when they use obscene language, there is not always a good example set for them by the adults. One pastor even seemed to enjoy telling a very off-color joke. The lack of consistency between verbal standards of conduct and the adherence to these standards of conduct in real life seems to be not much different, no matter where you live. Not many obscene gestures were observed. The most common is to turn one’s backside towards the disliked person and move it towards him or her. A description of this is Sikiive rerare. “They would act in an obscene manner towards him.”

7.2.5 Attitude towards anger

There is a definite awareness that extreme anger can result in regrettable consequences. Court actions and fines are not uncommon when extreme anger has been displayed. When a man from Togarao ordered another man to fix his toilet facilities, the second man became sarcastic and aroused the first man’s anger. At this, the angry man kicked the sarcastic man in the nose. The man who was kicked took the matter to the area Council, where the President of the Council ordered the offender to pay a certain amount of money to the offended man because of the wrong done. A man S. and his brother-in-law, P., had quite a heated argument in which the first, in an emotional outburst, defended his care of his wife, the other’s sister, and his own generosity. He told how he had always offered food to visitors, etc. Apparently this problem had been going on for some time, so in order to finish it once and for all, the first man S. dug a small trench with his axe, symbolizing that the “talk” had been cut and should be finished. The feelings lasted several weeks, after which the two men talked it out again and concluded by chewing betel nut together. Evidently, both men may exchange gifts of money later on as part of the conclusion of the argument. The man mentioned above, who was quick to demonstrate his anger, was aware of this trait in himself. When his wife wanted him to buy a shotgun to hunt birds for food, the man refused. He said, “I might become angry and shoot someone.” He stated that he would probably buy a gun later on, because it wouldn’t matter so much if he were sent to jail when he didn’t have so many family responsibilities, etc. It seems that when there is a major disagreement between two parties, the thing to do is to express anger and yell loudly enough for the entire village to know about it. In this way, one can announce to all the injustice committed. There is a way of covertly expressing anger, too, which is looked down upon and liable to court action. A man in his anger can cause prolonged illness or even death, it is said, by cutting open betel nut and at the same time verbalize his desire that the named man be struck down. If the masalai, or evil spirit, is in the area, hears of his desire, and partakes of the essence of the betel nut, then he will carry out the man’s desire on the intended victim. 83 If the victim, while chewing betel nut in his sleep or in a dream, sees the man who caused the illness, and if he then goes to the man and they are reconciled, then the illness will end and death will not occur. In 1978, there was a fine of K300.00 for any person caught cutting open betel nut with the intention of expressing his anger in this way.

7.2.6 Attitude towards respect

Respect is a major concern among the Rotokas adults, in particular. In some cultures, an extreme form of respect is avoidance as demonstrated among the Navajo Indians of the southwest United States, for example. Although avoidance is not carried out to the same degree among the Rotokas, it is present to some degree. When a mother-in-law comes for a visit, normally she cannot stay in the same house with the family. Two men built two smaller shelters to house their mothers-in-law, one of whom usually lives in a nearby hamlet. So, her son built the small shelter because of her frequent visits. The other example of avoidance when showing respect has already been described in the chapter on the Upe. In the past, women were to avoid the Upe initiates at all cost. To break this taboo was to literally take one’s life in her hands. In the past, men and women alike were expected to show respect for the “big men” of the village. This was done by being silent and by assuming certain positions when passing the important person. The terms for this display of respect are arikoko now considered archaic and avivike.

7.2.7 Attitude towards integrity

Today there are formalized written contracts to keep one true to his word. In the distant past, however, oaths were verbalized in this way, “If I lie taea ‘to deny truth’, then I will sleep with my mother or sister, or pig, or feces.” Today, a much more common oath is, Oiraopavira rutu vavo oiso viara-ia. “Truthfully with emphasis from above.” In the past, there was a symbolic sealing of a “contract.” The two parties involved in the agreement would place two stones, one on top of the other, and spit betel nut on them. This, in effect, would guarantee their integrity.

7.3 Consequences of Broken Taboos

Punishment such as court fines, death, and embarrassment have already been mentioned as the consequences of breaking communal taboos. Three short accounts of broken taboos add some detail to the above—the last two being examples of extra-communal offenses [see section 9.2]. In one of the stories commonly told, a certain type of taro was not to be picked. Parents told their two daughters of this taboo, but were not obeyed. The girls picked the taro intentionally or possibly by mistake, and the result was that they died. Another story tells of a spirit being who gave a bottle to a man and told him he was not to show it to anyone. The man’s daughter, however, discovered the hidden bottle and showed it to all in the village, thus breaking the taboo. The end of the man was death by hanging, so the story goes. Finally, the story is told of a man who burned some pitpit cane belonging to some spirit beings and located in an area where trespassing was strictly forbidden by these spirits. As a result of breaking this taboo, both the man and his son died in a fire.

7.4 Ultimate Goals