Brown 2001:166 explains that in order to be able to communicate or interact in a community successfully people should master and involve elements
of communicative competence such as grammatical, discourse, linguistic, pragmatic and strategies. In other words, people should have good communicative
competence in order to minimize the error production and misunderstanding in communication.
Richards, Platt and Weber 1985: 49 as cited in Brown 2001 explain the characteristics of communicative competence includes a knowledge of the
grammar and vocabulary of the language; b knowledge of rules of speaking how to begin the conversations, knowing what topics can be talked and etc; c
knowing how to use and respond to different types of speech acts such as requests, apologies, thanks, and invitations; d knowing how to use language appropriately.
4. Teaching and Learning Activities
The theories on the goal of CLT presented above encourage a discussion on ways to develop communicative skills through exercises and activities. The
range of exercise types and activities appropriate with a communicative approach is unlimited. Such exercises enable learners to attain the communicative
objectives, engage learners in communication and require the use of such communicative processes as information sharing, negotiation of meanings and
interaction. Littlewood 1981 distinguishes between “functional communicative activities” and “social interaction activities” as major activity types in CLT.
Teachers can device communicative activities for the classrooms which emphasis on the functional aspects for communication. This functional aspect for example
is problem solving by the students or the learners. They as the learners should also digest some information in the communication. In other words, the purpose of this
activity is that the learners should use the language, in this term is English, in order to get meanings or do conversation as effective as possible.
Furthermore, language should not only effective but also appropriate in social context or situation where the interaction takes place. Littlewood 1981: 21
explains that success in the conversation or in negotiating meaning is not only in terms of “functional effectiveness” but also in terms the language that is
acceptable in the community. Littlewood 1981:21 also explains that acceptability of the beginner learner may take concern more on accuracy in
pronunciation and grammar. Then it will come to have it as a part of producing language which is appropriate to specific kinds of social situation.
5. Procedure
Finnochiaro and Brumfit as cited in Richard and Rodgers 1986: 81 explain evolutionary procedures for the CLT. The procedures suggest of eleven
activities as follows: 1. Presentation of a brief dialog or several mini-dialogs, preceded by a
motivation and a discussion of the function and the situation. 2. Oral practice of each utterance of the dialog segment to be presented by
the teacher’s model. 3. Questions and answers based on the dialog topics and situations
themselves. 4. Questions and answers related to the students’ personal experiences but
centered on the dialog theme. 5. Study one of the basic communicative expressions in the dialog or one of
the structures which exemplify the function. 6. Learner’s discovery of generalizations of rules underlying the functional
expression or structure. 7. Oral recognition, interpretive activities.
8. Oral production activities. It proceeds from guided to freer communicative activities.
9. Copying the dialogs or mini dialogs or modules if they are not in the class text.
10. Sampling of the written homework assignments, if given. 11. Evaluating on learning. Oral only.
The steps above introduce the learner to a well-organized practice which motivates students to speak. The implementation of Communicative Language
Teaching in this study basically is to enforce communicative learning objectives as the result of interactive factors in the classroom.
b. Interactive Language Teaching
For many years, researchers of language teaching have proposed various approaches to help language teachers in conducting an effective classroom
condition that will facilitate the students to achieve the goal of their learning. Communication remains to be the central goal.
Brown 2001:166 explains that there are seven principles in interactive for interaction in language classroom. They are; first, the best interaction is not
focused on using the correct grammar or other linguistic forms but on the meaning and the message of the conversation. Learners can easily proceed to “automatic
modes of processing.” Second, learners are motivated to use language in their own communicative competence. Learners are also able to establish contact to each
other in an attempt to understand them in “speech act of fulfillment and self- actualization.” Then, learners have intrinsic motivation in their learning activities.
Third, teachers used the strategic language competence both on making certain decisions and on saying or writing or interpreting language. Teachers have
strategic investment to the students. Fourth, failing to produce intended utterance or making error in production or failing to interpret meaning are some of the risks
of interaction. Due to the risks people sometimes are being an object of laughing. Fifth, speaking and writing interactively belongs to the culture nuance of language.
It is about the language-culture connection which involving in the teaching learning activities. Sixth, in the developmental process of acquisition numerous
errors of production and comprehension usually occur that later it will be the part of this development. Seventh, the communicative competence should be mastered
by students. In order to be able to communicate or interact in community successfully people should mastered and involved elements of communicative
competence such as grammatical, discourse, linguistic, pragmatic and strategies. Nowadays teachers have important role in teaching-learning activities in
the classrooms. Teachers should consider the importance of interaction in the classrooms. Brown 2001: 165 explains that in this communicative paradigm on
language teaching it seems that interaction is being the core of communication. Learning to interact through interaction itself is the best way from any other.
People send, receive, and interpret messages finally negotiate meaning and find the purpose. Brown 2001: 165 “explains that interaction is the collaborative
exchange of thoughts, feelings or ideas between two or more people, resulting in reciprocal effect on each other.”
In the beginner level of language study, interactive classrooms should be conducted. Wilga Rivers 1987: 4-5 as quoted by Brown 2001:165:
Through interaction, students can increase their language store as they listen to or red authentic linguistic materials, or even the output of their fellow
students in discussion, skits, joint problem-solving tasks, or dialogue journals. In interaction students can use all they posses of the language –all they have learned
or casually absorbed- in real life exchanges.
Brown, 2001:165 When communicating, people use language to convey and receive
message. People do that by considering the social context in which the communication takes place. Wells 1981:29, 46-47 explains that linguistic
interaction is a collaborative activity involving the establishment of a triangular relationship between the sender, the receiver, and the context of situation, whether
the communication is speech or writing. Interaction exists when there are two persons involved in communication.
In spite of expression of one’s own ideas, one should also be able to comprehend of those ideas of others. During the English lesson in the classroom, students need
to communicate their own meaning and to understand what the others are talking. Wells 1981: 26 explains that “ collaborative, firstly, in the orderly sequencing of
speaking and listening turns; collaborative, secondly, in relating the meanings
expressed in each turn to those in the turn that precede and follow, finally, in agreeing on the object and action how to apply it.”
By this collaborative activity, students learn to use language in human relations. Thus, this activity should be the central activity in the classroom. In
addition to that, it is also important to create a situation in which the students can develop their communicative competence in a natural way.
To promote interaction in the classroom, teachers should be able to encourage students to participate and build up the students’ confidence and
enjoyment in what they are doing. Because interactive language teaching means elicitation of wiling students’ participation and initiative, it requires a high degree
of indirect leadership.
3. Speaking
This section will discuss the basic theory of speaking skill. The purpose of the discussion of the speaking theory below is to view the detail information, for
those who concern on teaching speaking skill.
a. The Nature of Speaking
What people need to know and to be able to do in order to speak in another language is not as simple as people speak their own native language. There are
speaking theories based on the experts and what underlying the successful oral communication.
Nunan 2003: 48 explains that speaking in a new language is harder than other skills like reading, writing, or listening. It is so because of two reasons they
are, first, speaking happens in real time, here and now; usually the person whom we are talking to is waiting for us to speak right then. Second, when a person
speaks, he or she cannot edit and revise what he or she wishes to say. According to Lado 1961: 240 “speaking ability is described as the ability
to express oneself in life situations or the ability to report acts or situations in precise words, or the ability to converse, or to express the sequences of ideas
fluently.” Besides, people need to know how to articulate sounds appropriately, people need enough vocabulary, and need to master the syntax. In other words,
people need to master linguistic competence and communicative competence. Lado 1961: 241 explains that “speaking ability as the ability to use in essentially
normal communication situations the signaling systems of pronunciation, stress, intonation, grammatical structure, and vocabulary of foreign language at a normal
rate of delivery for native speakers of the language.” Van Lier 1995: 88 as cited in Nunan 2003: 48 explains that spoken
language and written language have many differences. Here are the differences: a. Speaking is concerned with hearing and writing concerned with visualization.
b. Speaking is temporary and received by the listener immediately. Whereas writing is permanent and received in slow or late.
c. In speaking people need to have rhythm, stress, and intonation but in writing people have punctuation so that it can be received well by the receivers.
d. In speaking the speaker may have feedback directly whereas in writing it may not have any feedback.
e. Speaking need planning and editing in limited time while person speaks, but in writing it has longer time to plan, edit, and revise.
Brown 2001 explains that in order to be able to speak in another language, one need should know how to articulate sounds in comprehensible
manner, adequate vocabulary and syntax mastery. Burns 2002: 211 also explains that speaking is so much part of daily life that we tend to take it for granted.
However, learning speaking, whether in the first or other language, involves developing subtle and detailed knowledge about why, how and when to
communicate, and complex skills for producing and managing interaction. Nunan PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
2003: 50 explains that in order to communicate well in another language, one has to make herself understood by people she is speaking with. Of course this is
such a difficult task to do especially at the beginning and intermediate level.
b. The Process of Speaking
Rivers 1968: 158 explains that learning a foreign language is more than learning the description of it. Nevertheless, speaking and listening are involved in
the process. Therefore, it is necessary to know what are involved in the process. Shannon and Weaver as cited in Rivers 1968: 158 provide the model of
communication system as follows:
Signal Received signal
Information source
Destination Receiver
Transmitter Transmitter
Information source
Noise Source
Figure 2.1: The Process of Communication System Rivers, 1968: 158 c. Teaching Speaking
In order to do the research to teach speaking to the twelfth grade students of SMA Stella Duce Bantul, the theory of teaching speaking was explored. The
theory that becomes the basic understanding to speaking that involves learning by doing some principles will be described below.
Rivers 1970: 160-162 explains that to teach speaking skill, it is necessary to have the understanding of the process involved in speech. Teaching speaking
skill is more demanding on the teacher than the teaching of any other language skill. Accordingly, it is necessary for the teacher to give the students opportunities
to practice the speaking skill. Furthermore, they will develop greater and greater skill in encoding their thoughts even in a complicated foreign language speech.
Time by time, their native speech habits also reassert themselves when they try to express their messages in the foreign language. Teaching speaking is sometimes
considered as a simple process because it is totally natural. Nevertheless, according to Nunan 2003: 48 teaching speaking as a foreign language is
anything but simple. People who learn a foreign language from textbooks often sound bookish when they speak.
In recent years there are still many teachers who teach speaking by having students repeat sentences and recite textbook dialogues. Unfortunately, actual
conversation does not sound like the textbook dialogues. People acquiring languages learn the pieces by interacting with other people. Therefore, learners
should interact during lessons. That is why Communicative Language Teaching arose.
Paulstan and Bruder 1976: 56 explain that teaching language skills as speaking is based on Communicative Competence. Communicative competence is
the ability of the speaker to produce and communicate in a target language. Teaching points are to instruct the students or learners how to get the meaning
across and to be able to communicate some referential meaning in the target language.
1. Teaching Techniques
Lado 1964: 10 explains that the goal of teaching speaking will be achieved effectively if the teacher has involved the techniques and procedures to
manage the class. The teachers have to prepare their materials and exercises that enable the learners to attain communication objective, engage learners in
communication, and requires the use of communicative process Richard and Rodgers, 1986: 76. Teaching techniques frequently used in teaching speaking are
dialogue practice, conversation, role-play, getting information, and question and answer. These techniques provide the learners with many opportunities to actively
participate in speaking activities Rivers, 1986: 165. Communicative approach has proposed two kinds of communicative
activities namely, Functional Communication Activity and Social Interactional Activity. Both actually reflect the spoken form practice in teaching speaking skill.
a. Cued dialogues
Cued-dialogue was a technique used in the research. This technique was used in the first cycle of the research. These exercises allow the students to apply
what they have learned without conducting a conversation from start to finish with elaboration. It provides limited cues to expand. The language functions are
specified and the turns numbered, so that following the steps will create a fairly natural conversational exchange. A feedback discussion should follow.
Littlewood 1981: 51 states that this activity gives the interaction some of the uncertainty and spontaneity involved in real communication because each
learner must listen to his partner before formulating a definite response. Littlewood 1981: 51 explains that the cues also enable the learners to predict a
large proportion of what the other will say and to prepare the general list of their own responses. Littlewood 1981: 52 explains that there are three restrictions on
the range of language that can occur appropriately in a cued-dialogue. First, the cues control the functional meanings that learners have to express. Second, the
social situation and relationship determine what kind of language is appropriately for expressing these meanings. The last, particularly in early stages, it is unlikely
that learners’ repertoire will contain a wide variety of alternative forms to express a particular communicative function.
Therefore, Littlewood 1981: 52 explains that it is not difficult for a teacher to prepare learners for a specific activity, by equipping them with suitable
forms. However, Littlewood 1981: 52 also explains that the teacher may vary the learners’ scope for creativity in two ways. The first one is that the cues may be
more or less detailed in the functional meanings they specify and the teacher can vary his her instructions to the learners.
b. Role Play
Role play is any speaking activities when students put themselves into somebody else’s position. The situations in role play are usually not far from their
daily life. Hopefully while they are doing the role plays, the students or the participants are representing and experiencing some characters known in everyday
life. It would be a kind of practice and mistakes could be avoided before they apply it in real world.
Role play is an exercise in which student takes the role of a person affected by an issue and studies the impact of the issues on human life and the
effects of human activities on the world around us. Through role play students PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
take on the roles of situation to demonstrate the lesson in an interesting and immediate manner.
According to Littlewood 1981: 49, students in role play are asked to imagine themselves in other situations or condition that could occur outside the
classroom. They are asked to act as if the situation is real. It could be any simple situation that usually happens in real world around students.
According to Morrison 2000: 370 “role play is defined as participation in simulated social situations that are intended to throw light up upon the rolerules
context governing “real” life social episodes.” Hamilton 1976 in Morrison 2000: 370 explains variety of role play as a method and differentiated in terms of
“passive-active” forms. Person may role-play absolutely by reading a text of a social situation and filling in a questionnaire about it. Therefore, a person may
role play because heshe acted the characterization and perform it in front of audiences.
1. The uses of role-playing
The uses of role-playing are classified by Van Ments 1978 in Morrison 2000: 375 as follows:
a. Developing sensitivity and awareness The definition of position such as mother, teacher, policeman, and priest,
for example, explicitly or implicitly incorporate various role characteristics that often lead to the stereotyping of position occupants. Role-playing provides a
means of exploring such a stereotypes and developing a deeper understanding of the point of view and feelings of someone who finds herself in a particular role.
b. Experiencing the pressures that create roles Role-playing provides study material for group members on the ways in
which roles are created in, for example, a committee. It enables subjects to explore the interactions of formal structure and individual personalities in role
taking. c. Testing out for oneself possible modes of behavior
In effect, this is the rehearsal syndrome: the trying out in one’s mind in advance of some new situation that one has to face. Role playing can be used for a
wide variety of situation where the subject, for one reason or another, needs to learn to cope with the rituals and conventions of social intercourse and to practice
them so that they can be repeated under stress.
d. Simulating a situation for others and possibly oneself to learn from Here the role-player provides materials for others to use and work upon. In
the simplest situation, there is just one role-player acting out a specific role.
2. The Procedures of Using Role Play
