7 the research object. There were actually 12 students in the class. Yet, time by time
there are only 9 students now. They are between 13 to 14 years old. Most of the students of the conversation class had not reached the goal of the speaking skill
related to sentence constructing mastery.
8
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter discusses the related theories used as the foundation in designing a set of English conversation materials in this research. There are two
sections in this chapter: theoretical description and theoretical framework. The theoretical description defines the detailed steps of designed English conversation
materials.
A. Theoretical Description
This part discusses about the theories related to the topic of the study. The theories include the instructional design models, speaking skill, and games as the
consideration before designing the materials. The discussion is presented as follows.
1. Instructional Design
a. Kemp
According to Kemp 1977, there are eight stages in designing materials. They are:
1 Recognize the Goals, List the Topics, and State the General Purposes
Kemp 1977 described about the first step of the instructional design as:
Instructional design planning starts with a recognition of the broad goals of the school system or institution. The educational program
then developed to serve those goals. Within curriculum areas or courses, topics are chosen for study, for each of which the teacher
9 explicitly expresses the general purposes what students generally
are expected to learn as the result of instruction p. 13.
First, before designing the materials, the researcher needs to recognize the goals of the course taught to the students. The researcher then
should also list some major topics that become the scope of the course. It aimed as the bridge to help the researcher reach those goals. After that, the
researcher states the general purposes for each topic. They describe what the researcher wants the students to accomplish in the course.
2 List the Learners‟ Characteristics
Knowing the students‟ characteristics is very important so that the researcher can design the methods, technique, and materials that are
appropriate for them. The learners‟ characteristics include their academic factors and social factors. Those information can be obtained by using
interview, observation, and data analysis. Additionally, there are two other factors take important parts in
planning a design, learning condition and learning style. Learning style relates to the
students‟ best way or method of absorbing information. Some can learn better by only listening or reading, some may absorb more from
only visual approach, others may obtain the information from physical activities.
3 Define the Learning Objectives
After distinguishing the learners‟ characteristics, the researcher should define the learning objectives. The learning objectives contain what
10 the learners should achieve. It also aimed to inform the students in what
ways should they behave differently after studying certain topic. Learning objectives must be in the form of measurable outcomes produced by the
learners. “Writing objectives is a developmental activity that requires
refinements, changes, and additions as the writer develops subsequent planning steps
” Kemp, 1977, p. 24. The statement shows that the writing of the objectives is flexible. It
means that the researcher can either specify the objectives along with the process of making the planning steps or right after developing all the patent
planning steps. 4
List the Subject Content The next step is listing the subject content. Subject content comprises
the selection and organizing of the specific knowledge facts and information, skills step-by-step procedures, conditions, and requirements,
and attitudinal factors of any topic Kemp, 1977, p. 44. Subject content includes outline or notes of information for the
preparation of any lesson, speech, or a report. In organizing the content, the research needs to consider the four levels of objectives categorized by
Gagne. They are facts, concept, principles, and problem solving. All of them are related one another.
The lowest level is factual information, in which the students are lead to the concept of certain topics. It means when students are able to organize
the certain factual information, the students already reach the concept of the
