Theoretical Description REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
10 the learners should achieve. It also aimed to inform the students in what
ways should they behave differently after studying certain topic. Learning objectives must be in the form of measurable outcomes produced by the
learners. “Writing objectives is a developmental activity that requires
refinements, changes, and additions as the writer develops subsequent planning steps
” Kemp, 1977, p. 24. The statement shows that the writing of the objectives is flexible. It
means that the researcher can either specify the objectives along with the process of making the planning steps or right after developing all the patent
planning steps. 4
List the Subject Content The next step is listing the subject content. Subject content comprises
the selection and organizing of the specific knowledge facts and information, skills step-by-step procedures, conditions, and requirements,
and attitudinal factors of any topic Kemp, 1977, p. 44. Subject content includes outline or notes of information for the
preparation of any lesson, speech, or a report. In organizing the content, the research needs to consider the four levels of objectives categorized by
Gagne. They are facts, concept, principles, and problem solving. All of them are related one another.
The lowest level is factual information, in which the students are lead to the concept of certain topics. It means when students are able to organize
the certain factual information, the students already reach the concept of the
11 information as well. Then, after gaining the concepts, the students intended
to understand the relationship between the concepts, called as principles. The students are expected to be able to solve the problem rises in certain
situation by understanding and using principles. 5
Enhance the Pre-assessment Pre-assessment gives the information about what each student has
acquired and mastered about the object to be studied. According to Kemp 1977, pre-assessment can give the researcher information about 1 to what
extent each student has acquired the necessary prerequisites for studying the topic and 2 what the student may have already mastered about the subject
to be studied. Pre-assessment is used to ensure the researcher whether the students
already know about the topic or not. Therefore, there is no time wasted by the students on studying the same topic twice. In short, the learning
activities are efficiently and effectively used by both the researcher and the students.
6 Teaching or Learning Activity and Resources
In reaching the learning objectives, as stated before, the researcher needs to list the subject content. Then, the researcher needs some selected
teaching or learning activities to help the student reach the learning objectives.
“you must determine the most efficient and effective methods and then select the materials to provide learning experiences that will
utilize the content associated with each objective” Kemp, 1977, p.55.
12 Thus, the researcher is expected to choose the best methods that are
appropriate and helpful for the students. 7
Organize the Support Services To plan some learning activities, the researcher must require any
support services to implement the instructional plan. The support services include budget, personnel, facilities, equipment, and schedules.
Support services must be considered at the same time instructional plans are being made and materials, being selected. In addition,
consideration must be given to coordinating the planned program with other operational aspects of the institution student schedules,
guidance services, and so forth Kemp, 1977, p. 85.
8 Evaluate the Students‟ Learning
After all of the previous stages are completed, the researcher then measured the learning objectives accomplished by the students. The purpose
is to revise and evaluate any phases of the plan if there is any improvement needed. “Your objectives indicate what the evaluation should be. By stating
them clearly, you have assured measuring directly what you are teaching” Kemp, 1977, p.91.
Kemp ‟s instructional design plan is a flexible process. The eight
stages presented by Kemp are interdependence among each other. In completing this study, the researcher only takes some of the stages that are
really needed. The researcher then combines them with another theory of instructional design model.
13
Figure 2.1 Kemp’s Instructional Design Model Kemp, 1977, p.9
b. Yalden
In Yalden‟s 1987 instructional design model there are seven
stages in developing language program. They are all summarized as follows. 1
The Needs Survey The needs survey aims to obtain as much information as possible
about the learners, including the learners‟ purpose in acquiring the target language and what the learners desire or want in the program.
When a needs survey is being undertaken there is potentially a great deal of information to be gathered. The reason for all this
14 infromation gathering is to understand as much about the learrners as
possible prior to the beginning of the program, in order to establish realistic and acceptable objectives Yalden, 1987, p.101.
2 The Description of Purpose
The purpose of this step is to clarify the purpose of the language program. “The more accurately one can predict what the learners‟ language
or communicative needs will be, the more clearly the content of a syllabus can be delineated” Yalden, 1987, p. 107. It means that the designer needs
to specify the learners‟ purpose in acquiring the program. The description of purpose helps the designer to step on the next stage.
3 The Choice of a Syllabus Type
This is the step when the designer should decide which one of the syllabus model fits to the learners‟ characters, needs, and purposes in
acquiring the program. “There is no single model of syllabus design which is
universally agreed upon” Yalden, 1987, p. 108. That is why the designer should modify the syllabus that will be used in the language program.
4 The Proto-Syllabus
After deciding the syllabus for the language program, the designer then describes the content that the syllabus will have. The collected
information about the learners can be very helpful in determining the components that will be used in the syllabus. In short, the researcher should
specify the description of the syllabus ‟ content.
15 5
The Pedagogical Syllabus After describing the content of the syllabus, the course designer will
develop all of the approaches of the teaching, learning, and testing activity. 6
Development and Implementation of Classroom Procedures After acquiring all of the approaches in the pedagogical syllabus
process, the designer will develop the teaching and learning procedures. It includes the selection of the exercise, teaching technique, lesson plan, and
weekly schedule that will be applied in the class. The designer has to design the exercise by using interesting teaching technique, without ignoring the
learners‟ needs and characteristics. 7
Evaluation Evaluation step, or also called as recycling step, is the last step of
Yalden‟s instructional design model. In this step, the course designer evaluates the learners, the designed program, and the teaching process.
Figure 2.2 Yalden’s instructional design model Yalden, 1987, p. 88
Evalua tion
Developent and
implement ation of
classroom procedures
16 2.
Speaking Skill The researcher, as written in the title, is going to design a set of materials
for speaking skill that is wrapped in a form of conversation class. Thus, in this section the researcher is going to explain the theories about speaking skill that
are used as the base of this research. The theories are divided into three major parts: the nature of speaking, the principles of teaching, and the teaching
speaking. a.
The Nature of Speaking In Nunan 1989, pp. 26- 27, Brown and Yule 1983 begin their
discussion on the nature of spoken language by distinguishing between spoken and written language. Spoken language, consists of short, often
fragmentary utterances, in a range of pronunciations. While, written language, is characterized by well-formed sentences which are
integrated into highly structured paragraphs. They suggest that in contrast with the teaching of written
language, the teachers concerned with the spoken language must confront the following questions taken from Brown and Yule 1983 in
Nunan 1989: 1
What is the appropriate form of spoken language to teach? 2
From the point of view of pronunciation, what is a reasonable model?
3 How important is pronunciation?
17 4
Is it any more important than teaching appropriate handwriting in the foreign language?
5 If so, why?
6 From the point of view of the structures taught, is it all right to teach
spoken language as if it were exactly like the written language, but with a few „spoken expressions‟ throw in?
7 Is it appropriate to teach the same structures to all foreign language
students, no matter what their age is or their intentions in learning the spoken language?
8 Are those structures which are described in standard grammars the
structures which our students should be expected to produce when they speak English?
9 How is it possible to give students any sort of meaningful practice in
producing spoken English? Brown and Yule, 1983
b. The Principles of Teaching
According to Nunan 2003, pp. 54-56 the teacher should be aware of these following points as the principles for teaching speaking.
1 The Differences between Second Language and Foreign Language
Learning Context Speaking is learned in two broad context: foreign language and
second language situations. Foreign language is when the target language is not the language spoken by the learners in their society.
18 While, second language is when the target language is the language
used for communication in the society. 2
Fluency and Accuracy Fluency is the extent to which speakers use the language quickly
and confidently, with few hesitations or unnatural pauses, false starts, word searches, etc.
Accuracy is the extent to which student s‟ speech matches what
people actually say when they use the target language. 3
Group Work, Pair Work, and Limiting Teacher Talk Teachers need to consider their existence in the class and be
aware of how much they are talking in class, so they will not take up all the time the students could be talking. Thus, the teachers can use group
or pair work to maximize the students‟ time in speaking in the target language during the lesson.
4 Speaking Tasks than Involve Negotiation for Meaning
The principle is the students‟ communication or interaction using the target language
indicates the students‟ progress in learning, because it involves trying to understand and make her or himself
understood. In order to understand and be understood in speaking in the
target language, the students must really pay attention to what the speaker says, checking to see if they have understood about the
19 information given, clarifying their understanding, and then confirming
that someone has already understood what the students‟ meaning. 5
Design Classroom Activities that Involves Guidance and Practice in Transactional and Interactional Speaking
The difference of the transactional and interactional speaking is in their purposes. Transactional speech is used to get something done,
while interactional speech is for communicating with someone in special purposes.
Speaking activities inside the classroom need to embody both transactional and interactional purposes, since the learners will have to
speak the target language in both transactional and interactional settings.
3. Games
a. The Nature of Games
“Game is an activity which is entertaining and engaging, after challenging, and an activity in which the learners play and usually interact
with others” Wright, Betteridge, Buckby, 2006, p. i. b.
Types of Games There are several types of games that can be used as the means in
teaching. The games are grouped into eight sections, according to their family
type. The family name is always a verb. The verb summarises the most important way in which the learners are engaged in the game. It
also refers to the mental engagement on the part of the learners. Wright, 2006, p.4
20 c.
Roles of Games in English Language Teaching Here, game is chosen as one of the most appropriate activities
because of its important roles in language learning. Bell and Wieckert 1985 concluded that games increase motivation, help the socialization
process, clarify perplexing concepts, and integrate students with diverse ability levels.
d. Benefits of Games in Learning Activities
Game is chosen as the one of the best media in teaching and learning activities because according to Wright, Betteridge, and Buckby 2006,
games have these following features: 1
Language learning is hardwork Games help and encourage the learners to sustain their interest and
work. 2
Experiencing language Games help the teachers to create context in which the language is
useful and meaningful. Games also help the learners to experience the language, not merely study it.
3 Repeated use of language items
By producing speech such as information and opinion, games provide the k
ey features of „drill‟ that will be used as the part of communication using the target language.
21 4
Central learning Games provide intense and meaningful practice of language, then
they must be regarded as central to a language. e.
Designing Games In designing the games as the main technique of teaching, the
researcher should consider the construction of games stated by Bell and Wieckert 1985:
Construction of games: Step 1: Develop the theme
Where the need is greatest. Step 2: Determine the Purpose
Write down the statements that clearly define the purpose and the scope of the game.
Step 3: Dertermine the Grade Level Tailor the game so that the skills and information to be learned match
the range of abilities in the class or media center. Step 4: Determine the Number of Players
Step 5: Determine the Format Is it board game, card game, or roleplay game?
Step 6: Determine the Method of Checking Step 7: Design and Gather the Materials
Step 8: Define the Players‟ Roles Is it individual, maintenance, or task roles?
Step 9: Decide upon the Procedure and Time Be exact about how the game is to be played and make the rules brief
but clear. Step 10: Trial Run
Step 11: Evaluation
f. Three Adapted Games
There are three adapted games provided by the researcher. Those three chosen games are considered as the most suitable technique for the characters
of the conversation class‟ students.
22 1
Role-Play By having role-play, the students are expected to make and
practice the conversation in pairs. Role-play aims to improve the students ability in constructing sentence and speaking English in a fun
way. This game is created to give more confidence to the students. 2
Jumbled Words In jumbled-words, the students have to arrange the words into a
good sentence. This game is in a form of puzzle. Thus, this game improves the students‟ psychomotor. The goal is to apply the students‟
understanding about sentence construction. This is to strengthen students‟ grammar ability.
3 Guessing Game
Guessing game is the last game that is trusted to help the students to reach the objectives of the course. This game needs two
persons, one who gives the clues and the other guesses the answer. The one who gives the clues will be a good speaker. He or she has to
learn about how to construct sentence correctly and clearly so that the one who guesses will understand what he or she says. Likewise, the
one who guesses the answer will be learning to be a good listener. He or she has to learn about how to understand what the clue-giver is
saying.
23 4.
Task-based Learning for Defining Tasks in the Designed Materials In the designed materials, the researcher uses games as the technique for
teaching and learning activity. Since games is a branch of Communicative Language Teaching CLT, the researcher also uses Task-Based Learning TBL
approach for defining the tasks. It is supported by the statement said by Richards and Rodgers 2001 “a variety of games, role plays, simulations, and task-based
communication activities have been prepared to support Communicative Language Teaching classes.” While, talking about tasks, Hudelson 1993 states,
“a task is an activity or a goal that is carried out using language.” According to Willis 1996 in task-
based learning, “communication tasks where language forms are not controlled involve learners in an entirely
different mental process as they compose what they want to say, expressing what they think or feel.” p. 77. Based on that statement, it means that the students
are to express what they want. While, the teacher‟s role is to give the tasks that accomodate the students but without shutting out t
he students‟ needs. The role of students‟ tasks in teaching-learning process is supported by
the students‟ past experience, as Nunan 2004 explains: The main characteristic of task-based learning focuses on the experiential
learning where the learners‟ past experiences become the starting point in learning, while their persona experience when doing the tasks becomes
the central point of learning p. 87.
In task-based learning, there are two main types of tasks. The first is tasks based on the analysis of communicative language use, and the second is tasks
according to the strategies. Willis 1996 classifies six types of tasks according
24 to the analysis of communicative language use. They are: listing tasks, sorting
and ordering, comparing, problem-solving, problem-solving, sharing personal experience, and creative tasks p. 26. Those six types are described as follow:
a. Listing
Listing tasks provide a lot of opportunities for the learners to express their ideas. Before expressing their idea, they have to brainstorm their ideas
about the topic they are learning. The brainstorming will be in form of a complete list, mind map is possible. In listing, there is no need to give too
many explanations. b.
Sorting and Ordering These tasks involve four main processes: sequencing items, actions
or events in logical or chronological order, ranking items based on the personal values or specified criteria, categorizing items in given groups or
grouping them under the given headings, and classifying items in different ways, which the categories themselves are not given. These kinds of tasks
provide the clue of the arrangement of the task through numbers or letters. c.
Comparing Comparing task involves comparing information from two or more
sources to identify common points. The processes involved are: matching to identify specific points and relate them to each other, finding the similarities
and things in common, and finding the differences.
25 d.
Problem-Solving This task allow the learners to show their intellectuality and ability
to think and analyze. The activities in this task are quite challenging and engaging. In this task, the learners will never stop to solve the selected
problems if it is interesting. The duration and processes depend on the type and complexity of the problem.
e. Sharing Personal Experience
Sharing personal experience task is not as goal-oriented as in other tasks since the result of this task is more like casual social conversation. It
is because in this task the leaerners are encouraged to talk more freely about themselves and share about what they have experienced to others.
f. Creative Tasks
Creative tasks tend to have more stages than other tasks since these tasks are often combined with the other task types: listing, ordering and
sorting, comparing and problem solving. This kind of task involves some pairs or groups of learners in some kinds of free creative works. The
combination of the tasks often take longer time to finish compared with other individual task.
Moreover, Richards and Rodgers 2001 states that in the analysis of communicative language use the classification of tasks is defined into:
jigsaw task, information-gap task, problem-solving task, decision-making task, and opinion exchange task p. 48. The description of each task is
listed as follows:
26 a.
Jigsaw Task In jigsaw task, the learners have to combine different pieces of
information in order to make them a complete piece of information. For example, the learners are expected to arrange three different parts of a
story into a good order. b.
Information-Gap Task In this task, the learners are required to perform the negoitation of
meaning and find out what the task should be. This task requires at least two students who have a set of information.
c. Problem-Solving Task
This task expects the learners to find the way out from the problem given by the teacher. The learners are also given a set of information to
solve the problem. d.
Decision-Making Task In decision-making task, the learners have to have a discussion to
find out some solution of a problem and then they negotiate about the best solution.
e. Opinion-Exchange Task
In this task, the learners are engaged in a discussion and exchange of ideas. Yet, they do not need to reach any agreement for the discussion.
Talking about the strategies behind the task, Nunan 2004 classifies task into five catefories: cognitive, interpersonal, linguistic, affective and
creative tasks p. 59. the classification of task can be seen in Table 2.1.
27
Table 2.1 Nunan’s Task Classification Nunan, 2004, p.59
Cognitive Tasks
Classifying Putting similar things together in groups
Predicting Predicting what is to come in the learning process
Inducing Looking for patterns and regularities
Taking notes Writing down the important information in a text in
your own words Concept mapping
Showing the main ideas in a text in the form of a map Inferencing
Using what you know to learn something new Discriminating
Distinguishing between the main idea and supporting information
Diagramming Using information from a text to label a diagram
Interpersonal Tasks
Co-operating Sharing ideas and learning with other students
Role-playing Pretending to be somebody else and using the
language for the situation you are in
Linguistic Tasks
Conversational patterns
Using expressions start conversations and keep them going
Practicing Doing controlled exercises to improve knowledge and
skills Using context
Using the surrounding context to guess the meaning or an unknown words, phrase, or concept
Summarizing Picking out and presenting the major points in a text
in summary form Selective listening
Listening for key information without trying to understand every word
Skimming Reading quickly to get a general idea of a text
Affective Tasks
Personalizing Learners share their own opinions, feelings, and ideas
about a subject Self-evaluating
Thinking about how well you did on a learning task, and rating yourself on a scale
Reflecting Thinking about ways you learn best
Creative Tasks
Brainstorming Thinking as many new words and ideas as one can
According to Willis 1996, “the framework of task-based learning consists of three phases: pre-
task, task cycle and language focus” p. 42. The discussion of those three tasks can be seen in the following description.
28 a.
Pre-Task Phase This phase starts with a teaching-learning process in the classroom.
This is the introduction of the topic of the teaching and learning process. For that reason, the teacher should lead the learners to define the topic they
are going to learn. This task includes the use of pictures that are related to the topic. This
task‟s function is to recall and activate the words and phrases that will be used in the topic. In this phase, the learners are guided
to their experience they had related to the topic. The goal is to make the learners familiar with the learning topic. In this task, the teachers should
ensure that all learners reach the understanding of the tasks involve, the goals, and the outcomes required.
b. Task Cycle Phase
This is the main phase, where the learners are encouraged to work with others to achieve the set goals by keeping a minimum interference on
learners‟ work. There are three components involved in this step: task, planning, and reports. The first component is task. In task, the learners do
the task, either in pairs and small groups while the teacher guides the learners improving their language.
c. Language Focus Phase
This is the last phase of all. In this phase, the learners will discuss some specific features of language that come naturally during the second
phase, task cycle phase. The purpose is to make the learners understand deeper about the tasks that have beend one. There are two components
29 involved in this phase: analysis and practice. The first component is
analysis, it requires the learners to analyze certain texts, transcripts and sets of examples taken from familiar data while the teacher reviews the
analyzed data with the class. The second component is practice, where the learners do some exercises about some new words, phrases, and patterns
that occur during the analysis which will be practiced by the learners. The components of task-based learning framework is presented in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3. Willis’ Task-Based Learning Framework Willis, 1996, p. 38
5. Conducting Material Adaptation in the Designed Materials
In designing the materials the researcher conducted material adaptation. In adapting the materials the researcher applies the existing
materials, yet still considering the learners‟ characteristics. According to
Pre-Task
Introduction to topic and task Teacher explores the topic with the class, highlights useful words and
phrases, helps students understand task instructions and prepare. Students may hear a recording of others dong a similar task.
Task Cycle Task
Students do the task, in pairs or
small gorups. Teacher monitors
from a distance
Planning
Students prepare to report to the whole class orally
or in writing how they did the task, what they
decided or discovered
Report
Some groups present their reports to the class,
or exchange written reports, and compare
results.
Language Focus Analysis
Students examine and discuss specific features of the text or
transcript if it is recording.
Practice
Teacher conducts practice of new words, phrases, and patterns occuring
in the data, either during or after the analysis.
30 Tomlinson and Masuhara 2004 “materials adaptiation is adjusting andor
changing the existing materials into suitable one which depends on the need of the learners,
students, and the situation” p. 10. The material adaptation can shorten or lengthen an activity, skip an
activity and go on the next one, and change the order of the activities. Tomlinson and Masuhara 2004 suggest “teacher may decide to use only
part of a unit, add or delete texts or activities, and replace or supplement texts or activities with ones from other sources” p. 11. In adapting
material, the teacher can filter the suitable materials for the learners by adding or replacing the texts or activities.
In mateirals adaptation, there are three main techniques namely plus +, minus -, and zero 0 category Tomlinson and Masuhara, 2004, p.
16. The description of each category can be seen as follow. a.
Plus Category In this category, there are two techniques namely: addition and
expansion. The addition technique means that the teacher may add different texts andor activities. On the other hand, in the expansion technique, the
teacher may expand the texts and activities by increasing the lengthm, difficulty, and depth.
b. Minus Category
In minus category, there are three techniques in adapting materials. The techniques are: deletion, substraction, and reduction. The first is
deletion technique, where the teacher may delete some texts and or
31 activities altogether. The second is substraction technique. In this technique,
the teacher may decrease the number of sentences in a text or part of an activity. The last is reduction technique, where the teacher may reduce texts
and activities by decreasing the length, difficulty, depth, etc. c.
Zero Category This is the last category. There are five techniques in this category,
namely: modification, replacement, reorganization, resequencing, and conversion. The first is modification technique. Here, the teacher made
changes on the instructions. The second technique is replacement, where the teacher swapped one activity with another. The third is reorganization
technique. In this technique, the teachers change the positions of the texts and illustrations. The forth is resequencing technique, here the teacher
changed the sequence of the activities. The fifth technique is conversion. In this step, the teacher changed the genre of a text or move the content from
one medium to another. However, the researcher only used several material adaptation tehniques. It depended on the time allotment provided in the
lesson plans.