Designing a set of english conversation materials for advance learners of conversation class at quick concept english course Solo.

DESIGNING A SET OF ENGLISH CONVERSATION MATERIALS FOR ADVANCED LEARNERS OF CONVERSATION CLASS

ATQUICK CONCEPTENGLISH COURSE SOLO

A Thesis

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain theSarjana PendidikanDegree

in English Language Education

By

By

Amrita Saraswati Sasongko Student Number: 021214055

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2008

DESIGNING A SET OF ENGLISH CONVERSATION MATERIALS FOR ADVANCED LEARNERS OF CONVERSATION CLASS

ATQUICK CONCEPTENGLISH COURSE SOLO

A Thesis

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain theSarjana PendidikanDegree

in English Language Education

By

By

Amrita Saraswati Sasongko Student Number: 021214055

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2008

A Thesis on

DESIGNING A SET OF ENGLISH CONVERSATION MATERIALS FOR ADVANCED LEARNERS OF CONVERSATION CLASS

ATQUICK CONCEPTENGLISH COURSE SOLO

By

AMRITA SARASWATI SASONGKO Student Number: 021214055

Approved by:

Major Sponsor

FX. Ouda Teda Ena, S.Pd., M.Pd. 23 July 2008

Co-Sponsor

A Thesis on

DESIGNING A SET OF ENGLISH CONVERSATION MATERIALS FOR ADVANCED LEARNERS OF CONVERSATION CLASS

ATQUICK CONCEPTENGLISH COURSE SOLO

By

AMRITA SARASWATI SASONGKO Student Number: 021214055

Defended before the Board of Examiners on 23 July 2008

and Declared Acceptable

Board of Examiners

Chair person : A. Hardi Prasetyo, S.Pd., M.A. Secretary : Made Frida Yulia, S.Pd., M.Pd. Member : FX. Ouda Teda Ena, S.Pd., M.Pd. Member : Henny Herawati, S.Pd., M.Hum. Member : Caecilia Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd.

Yogyakarta, 23 July 2008

Faculty of Teachers Training and Education Sanata Dharma University

Dean,

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY

I honestly declare that this thesis, which I wrote, does not contain the work or parts of the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the references, as a scientific paper should.

Yogyakarta, 23 July 2008 The Writer

Amrita Saraswati Sasongko 021214055

ABSTRACT

Sasongko, Amrita Saraswati. 2008. Designing a Set of English Conversation Materials for Advanced Learners of English Conversation Class at Quick Concept English Course Solo. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

There are two reasons that underline the writing of this thesis. The first reason is the needs of the advanced learners of English Conversation Class atQuick Concept English Course Solo to improve their English skills, especially their speaking skills. The second reason is the needs of the teachers at Quick Concept English Course Solo to have a set of materials as the guidance to conduct teaching/learning activities. Therefore this thesis is intended to design a set of English conversation materials to fulfill both the learners’ and the teachers’ needs.

This thesis attempted to answer two research questions. The research questions are (1) What are the steps of designing a set of English conversation materials for advanced learners of English Conversation Class at Quick Concept English Course Solo? (2) What does a set of English conversation materials for advanced learners of English Conversation Class atQuick Concept English Course Solo look like?

The writer used some literature review as the reference to design the materials. The literature review includes Instructional Design Model, Communicative Language Teaching, Teaching Speaking, and Materials Development.

In this study, the writer used Educational Research and Development (R&D) study as the methodology. She did not use all steps in R&D cycle because of efficiency. The steps used include identifying the product to be developed, reviewing the literature, planning the development program, developing the product, conducting a main field test, revising the product in keeping with the findings of the main field test, and making the final product.

To answer the first research question, the writer followed the eight steps in Kemp’s instructional design model. They are (1) Considering goals, topics, and general purposes, (2) Determining learner characteristics, (3) Specifying the learning objectives, (4) Listing the subject content, (5) Developing pre-assessments, (6) Selecting teaching/learning activities and resources, (7) Coordinating a support service, and (8) Evaluating students’ accomplishments. Since Kemp’s model is flexible, the writer could start the designing with any step that was considered ready to conduct first.

The writer started the designing process by conducting needs survey to gain the information of the students’ needs and wants. She used two instruments in this survey: questionnaire and interview. The survey included 12 advanced learners of English Conversation Class at Quick Concept English Course Solo as the respondents. The results of the pre-design survey were used as the guidance to design the materials.

After the materials had been designed, the writer conducted post-design survey by distributing evaluation questionnaires and conducting interviews with the respondents. The respondents consisted of two English teachers at Quick Concept English Course Solo, two representative learners, and an expert. The results of the post-design survey were used as the guidance to improve the materials.

The materials that have been improved become the final version of the designed materials. There are eight topics discussed in eight units. They include “The Most Impressive Experience”; “The Future”; “The Hottest News”; “The Unique Customs”; “Technology, Information, and Communication”; “The Social Issues; Interviews; and Problem Solving”.

In each unit there are four main parts. Part A, “Learn It”, includes reading and listening parts. This part is intended to give the learners experiences of the related topics. Part B, “Let’s Try”, is the main part of the whole units where the learners are to practice speaking. In this part there are some tasks that direct the learners to do speaking activities. Part C, “Feedback”, has two discussions: “Grammar Point” and “Words Bank”. In this part, there are some discussions of grammar and vocabulary that are discussed in the previous parts. Part D, “Homework”, gives instruction to the learners about what to do and prepare at home for the next meeting.

ABSTRAK

Sasongko, Amrita Saraswati. 2008. Designing a Set of English Conversation Materials for Advanced Learners of English Conversation Class at Quick Concept English Course Solo. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Ada dua alasan yang mendasari penulisan skripsi ini. Alasan pertama adalah kebutuhan siswa-siswi tingkat Advanced di Kelas Percakapan Bahasa Inggris di Quick Concept English Course Solo untuk mengembangkan kemampuan Bahasa Inggris mereka, terutama kemampuan berbicara. Alasan yang kedua adalah kebutuhan para pengajar di Quick Concept English Course Solo untuk mempunyai satu set materi sebagai panduan untuk menyelenggarakan kegiatan belajar mengajar. Oleh karena itu, skripsi ini dimaksudkan untuk mendesain satu set materi percakapan untuk memenuhi baik kebutuhan siswa-siswi maupun kebutuhan para pengajar.

Skripsi ini mencoba menjawab dua pertanyaan. Pertanyaan-pertanyaan tersebut adalah (1) Apa langkah-langkah dalam mendesain satu set materi percakapan Bahasa Inggris untuk siswa-siswi tingkat Advanced di Kelas Percakapan Bahasa Inggris diQuick Concept English Course Solo? (2) Seperti apakah penyajian satu set materi percakapan Bahasa Inggris untuk siswa-siswi tingkat Advanced di Kelas Percakapan Bahasa Inggris diQuick ConceptEnglish Course Solo?

Penulis menggunakan beberapa kajian literatur sebagai referensi dalam mendesain materi. Kajian literatur tersebut mencakup Instructional Design Model, Communicative Language Teaching, Teaching Speaking, dan Materials Development.

Dalam studi ini, penulis menggunakan Educational Research and Development (R&D) study sebagai metodologinya. Penulis tidak menggunakan semua langkah dalam R&D untuk efisiensi. Langkah-langkah yang digunakan mencakup identivikasi produk untuk dikembangkan, meninjau literature, merencanakan program pengembangan, mengembangkan produk, mengadakan test di area utama, merevisi produk berdasarkan hasil test di area utama, dan membuat produk akhir.

Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama, penulis mengikuti delapan langkah dalam model desain Kemp. Langkah-langkahnya adalah (1) Menentukan sasaran, topik, dan tujuan umum, (2) Menentukan karakteristik siswa-siswi, (3) Mendiskripsikan tujuan pembelajaran, (4) Membuat isi pelajaran, (5) Melaksanakan pre-test, (6) Memilih aktivitas belajar mengajar dan sumber-sumbernya, (7) Mengkoordinasi fasilitas pendukung, (8) Melakukan penilaian atas pencapaian siswa-siswi. Karena model desain Kemp fleksibel, penulis dapat memulai mendesain dengan langkah apapun yang dinilai siap untuk dilakukan pertama kali.

Penulis memulai proses mendesain materi dengan mengadakan needs survey untuk memperoleh informasi tentang kebutuhan dan keinginan siswa-siswi. Penulis menggunakan dua instumen dalam survey ini: kuestioner dan wawancara. Survey ini melibatkan 12 siswa-siswi tingkat Advanced di Kelas Percakapan Bahasa

Inggris di Quick Concept English Course Solo. Hasil dari survey ini digunakan sebagai panduan untuk mendesain materi.

Setelah materi didesain, penulis mengadakan post-design survey dengan cara membagikan kuesioner dan melakukan wawancara dengan responden. Responden tersebut melingkupi dua pengajar bahasa Inggris di Quick Concept English Course Solo, dua perwakilan siswa-siswi, dan seorang ahli. Hasil dari post-design survey ini digunakan sebagai panduan untuk merevisi materi.

Materi yang telah direvisi menjadi versi terakhir dari materi tersebut. Ada delapan topik yang dibahas dalam delapan unit. Topik-topik tersebut melingkupi “The Most Impressive Experience”; “The Future”; “The Hottest News”; “The Unique Customs”; “Technology, Information, and Communication”; “The Social Issues; Interviews; and Problem Solving”.

Dalam setiap unit ada empat bagian utama. Bagian A, “Learn It”, melingkupi kegiatan membaca dan mendengarkan. Bagian ini dimaksudkan untuk memberikan siswa-siswi pengenalan akan topic terkait. Bagian B, “Let’s Try”, merupakan bagian pokok dari keseluruhan unit, di mana siswa-siswi harus praktek berbicara. Dalam bagian ini ada beberapa tugas yang menugaskan siswa-siswi untuk melakukan kegiatan berbicara. Bagian C, “Feedback”, mempunyai dua pembahasan “Grammar Point” dan “Words Bank”. Dalam bagian ini ada beberapa pembahasan tentang grammar dan kata-kata yang didiskusikan di bagian-bagian sebelumnya. Bagian D, “Homework”, memberikan perintah kepada siswa-siswi tentang apa yang harus dilakukan dan dipersiapkan untuk pertemuan berikutnya.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Jesus Christ above all for everything He has been doing for me. Through His endless love I can live, enjoy this life, and do my best. I can never stand alone without His blessing, guidance, and protection.

I would also like to thank Mother Mary for her prayer that always protects and accompanies me everywhere. I always get the strength I need every time I pray to her. My great gratitude is directed to my Major Sponsor, F.X. Ouda Teda Ena, S.Pd., M.Pd., and my Co-Sponsor, Henny Herawati, S.Pd., M.Hum., that have helped and guided me to finish this thesis. I really appreciate the patience, time, and guidance they have given.

I dedicate this thesis for my beloved Romoand Mami. All they have given to me: love, support, guidance, and trust realize me that there is real unlimited love in this world. My special gratitude also goes to Yu Terry, Mas Nin, Rani’dut’, Ary, Tegar for being my great family and also friends. Also, I would not forget to express my gratitude to the big “Pajang” family:YuSri,MasDanang, Pak-Pak Satpam,Pak Minto, and all who have shared love, care and help. I really appreciate all they have given to me.

It is never enough to say thanks to my greatest friends that have made my life more colourful and cheerful: Ade for our full of happiness friendship and great experiences, and Amri for being my true friend ever. My really big thanks are for them for accompanying me in my happy and sad times. My thanks also go to Mba

Aitz, Mas Ony, and all my students for many things I could learn from them. For Icha, Dolip,Mba-mba and Mas-mas in the office, thank them so much for the great friendships.

My very special thanks are for Yohanes Bayu Radeka that always colours my days. I thank him for loving, understanding, accompanying, and taking care of me. I can really see love, faith, and patience because of him.

Finally, for all people that have touched my heart and have shared beautiful things with me that I cannot mention their names one by one, I would like to dedicate this thesis for them. Let’s always enjoy the beauties in lives and share to everyone. God bless us all!

Amrita Saraswati Sasongko

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE PAGE ……….. . i

APPROVAL PAGES ……… ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………. ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS ………. xi

LIST OF TABLES ……… xvi

FIGURE ………... xvii

LIST OF APPENDICES …………..……… xviii

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study ………. 1

B. Problem Formulation ……… 3

C. Problem Limitation ……….. 3

D. Objectives of the Study ……… 4

E. Benefits of the Study ……… 4

F. Definition of Terms ……….. 4

CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW A. Theoretical Description ………. 7

1. Instructional Design Model ……… 7

2. Communicative Language Teaching ……….. 9

a. The Roles of Teachers ……….. 10 xi

b. The Roles of Learners ……….. 11

c. The Roles of Instructional Materials ……… 11

d. Communicative Competence ……… 12

e. Communicative Activities ……… 13

3. Teaching Speaking ………... 14

a. Nature of Speaking and Oral Interaction ………... 14

b. Principles for Teaching Speaking ………. 16

1) Elements Needed for Successful Language Learning in Classroom ……… 17

2) Type of Speaking Activity Students Should Do ……. 17

3) Encouraging Students to Do Speaking Tasks ………. 18

4) Teachers’ Corrections in Speaking ………. 19

5) Other Considerations for Teachers ………. 19

c. Speaking Activities ……….. 20

1) Characteristics of A Successful Speaking Activity ... 20

2) Problems with Speaking Activities ……… 20

3) Solutions ……… 21

4) Kinds of Speaking Activities ………. 23

4. Materials Development ……….. 24

a. Materials Adaptation ………. 25

b. Materials Writing ……….. 26

1) Selecting Texts ……… 26 xii

2) Writing Instructions ……… 27

3) Using Illustrations ……….. 28

4) Arranging Design and Layout ……… 29

B. Theoretical Framework ………. 29

CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY A. Research Method ……….. 34

B. Research Respondents ……….. 37

C. Research Setting ……… 38

D. Research Instruments ……… 38

1. Questionnaires ……… 38

2. Interviews ……… 39

E. Data Gathering Technique ……… 39

F. Data Analysis ……… 40

1. The Quantitative Data ………. 40

2. The Qualitative Data ………... 41

G. Research Procedures ………. 41

1. Preparation ………. 41

2. Conducting the Needs Survey ……… 42

3. Analyzing the Data from the Needs Survey ………... 42

4. Designing Instructional Materials ……… 42

5. Conducting the Evaluation of the Designed Materials ……… 43

6. Revising and Developing the Final Version of the Materials .. 43 xiii

CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

A. The Steps of Designing the Materials ……… 44

1. Conducting Pre-design Survey ………. 45

a. Respondents ……….. 45

b. Needs Survey Results ………... 46

2. Enumerating the Important Characteristics of the Learners … 49 3. Stating Goals, Topics, and General Purposes ………. 50

a. The Goals ………. 50

b. The Topics ……… 51

c. The General Purposes ……….. 51

4. Specifying the Learning Objectives ……… 51

5. Selecting Subject Content .……….. 54

6. Selecting Teaching/Learning Activities and Resources …….. 54

7. Coordinating A Support Service ………. 56

8. Evaluation ………... 56

a. Respondents ………. 57

b. Data Presentation and Analysis ………... 59

B. The Designed Materials ……… 61

1. The Most Impressive Experience ……… 67

2. The Future ……….. 68

3. The Hottest News ………... 68

4. Unique Customs ………. 69 xiv

5. Technology, Information, and Communication ………. 70

6. Social Issues ……… 71

7. Interviews ……… 71

8. Problem Solving ……….. 72

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS A. Conclusions ……… 73

B. Suggestions ……… 76

1. For the Teachers at Quick Concept English Course ………. 76

2. For the Learners ……… 77

3. For Future Researches ……….. 77

REFERENCES ……… 78

APPENDICES ………. 80

LIST OF TABLES

Page Table 3.1: The Five Points of Agreement ……… 40 Table 3.2: The Central Tendency ……… 41 Table 4.1: The Respondents’ Backgrounds ………. 58 Table 4.2: The Results of the Closed-Ended Questions of the Evaluation

Questionnaires ………. 59 Table 4.3: The Units, Topics, and Objectives of the Designed Materials … 62

FIGURE

Page Figure 2.1: Kemp’s Model: The Relationship of each step in the plan

to the other steps ……… 8

LIST OF APPENDICES

Page

Appendix A: Pre-Design Survey Questionnaire ……… 81

Appendix B: The List of Questions of Informal Interview for Pre-Design Survey ……… 84

Appendix C : Post-Design Survey Questionnaire ……….. 86

Appendix D: The List of Questions of Informal Interview for Post-Design Survey ……….. 88

Appendix E: Syllabus ………. 90

Appendix F: Lesson Plans ……….. 93

Appendix G: Materials Presentation ……….. 110

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

There are six main parts in this chapter. They include the background of the study, the problem formulation, the problem limitation, the objectives of the study, the benefits of the study, and the definition of terms.

A. Background of the Study

Nowadays, English is used in almost all over the world. As an international language, it plays a role like a bridge that connects people from different countries that speak different languages.

In Indonesia, although used not as the first language, English is very important. A lot of aspects of life like education, politics, economy, technology, medicine, communication, information and entertainment use English. It is used by a lot of people in this country to serve many kinds of purposes: to gain information, to make relation with other people from other countries, to deal with technology, to reach higher level of education or occupation and many more.

Considering the important roles of English, the government has determined to make English as a compulsory subject at schools. However, the time allocation for this subject is limited. The students learn it for only several hours a week. In addition, the materials learnt at schools are focused to prepare the students for examinations. The students’ abilities in using it, as the means of communication, are not well

developed. That is why a lot of students who feel unsatisfied with what they obtain and learn in schools often try to join additional classes outside schools. Those who want to improve their abilities in English join English courses that provide chances for them to obtain more knowledge about English and to practise using the language more.

One of the English courses that is growing rapidly is Quick Concept English Course Solo. It is located at Jalan Kawung 3, Solo. Since it was opened on March 27, 2003, the number of the learners is increasing. The teaching methods which are focused on the language use have given great development for the learners’ abilities in using English as a communication means.

However, the course only provided one short period course for all learners. It only offered basic and intermediate levels. After 55 meetings the course had ended already, whereas in fact, many of the graduates have requested higher levels. Most of them want to maintain or even increase their English skills, especially their speaking skills. Responding to the requests,Quick ConceptEnglish Course Solo then provides a conversation class for the graduates. The activities and the purposes of the class are focused on speaking skill. The topics include topics that often discussed in daily life such as life stories, news, science, and social issues. It depends on the teachers that play roles as the facilitators.

In order to make the class really focus on the speaking activities and to be able to fulfill the target, that is to increase the learners’ speaking abilities, the teachers should have the guidelines in conducting the teaching-learning activities.

This study is intended to design a set of English conversation materials for the class. Hopefully, it can give benefits for both sides, the teachers and also the learners. The teachers are expected to get the benefits by using this design as the guidelines, and the learners hopefully can increase their speaking abilities by joining this class using this design as the materials to learn.

B. Problem Formulation

In this study, there are two major research problems to answer. They are formulated as follows:

1. What are the steps of designing a set of English conversation materials for advanced learners of English Conversation Class at Quick Concept English Course Solo?

2. What does a set of English conversation materials for advanced learners of English Conversation Class atQuick ConceptEnglish Course Solo look like?

C. Problem Limitation

This study concerns with the designing a set of English conversation materials for advanced learners of English Conversation Class at Quick Concept English Course Solo. To make the study more effective and focused, this study is limited to design the materials for advanced learners, those are learners who have passed the basic and intermediate levels at Quick Concept English Course Solo. They have

proper mastery in English skills and elements. However, there is no discussion on the effectiveness of the materials designed.

D. Objectives of the Study

This research is aimed to discover the steps of designing a set of English conversation materials for advanced learners of English Conversation Class at Quick Concept English Course Solo and to design a set of English conversation materials for advanced learners of English Conversation Class at Quick Concept English Course Solo.

E. Benefits of the Study

This study is intended to give some benefits. First, hopefully, it can be used as the guidelines for the teachers of Quick Concept English Course Solo to teach the advanced learners of the English Conversation Class at Quick Concept English Course Solo. Second, by using the materials, the learners are expected to obtain improvement in their speaking skills. Third, it can be used as a reference for other teachers to teach and for other writers to do similar studies or develop further researches.

F. Definition of Terms

To clarify concepts and avoid misinterpretation, some words and phrases are defined as follows:

1. Design

Richards and Rodgers (1986) state that design is the level of method analysis in which several things are considered: the objectives, the ways the language content are selected and organized, the types of learning tasks and teaching activities, the roles of learners, the roles of teachers, and the role of instructional materials. 2. English Conversation Materials

According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s dictionary, materials are things that are needed in order to do a particular activity. Kemp (1977) states that the content of the materials must closely relate to the objectives and to the students’ needs. In this study, the English conversation materials relate to the things that are used in conversation class. The materials are intended to give guidelines for the teachers and the students in doing teaching-learning activities.

3. Advanced learners

In this study, advanced learners refer to Quick Concept English Course Solo learners who have passed 55 meetings. They have learned the first, the second, and the third books of New Concept English for Global Communication published by Cambridge University Press.

4. English Conversation class

English Conversation Class in this study refers to the English Conversation Class in Quick Concept English Course Solo in which the activities of the class are

mainly focused on speaking. The class is provided for those who have passed 55 meetings.

5. Quick ConceptEnglish Course Solo

Quick Concept English Course Solo is located at Jalan Kawung 3, Solo. It was opened on March 27, 2003. The course provides classes for high school students, college students and also for general people. The standard number of the meetings is 55, those are the meetings for basic and intermediate levels. If the students want to continue the study, they can join the conversation class that has been provided for advanced learners.

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, the writer discusses theories used in this study. The Theoretical Description discusses literature related to Instructional Design Model, Communicative Language Teaching, and teaching speaking. The Theoretical Framework summarizes the discussions in the Theoretical Description.

A. Theoretical Description 1. Instructional Design Model

Instructional design model deals with the planning of instruction used in teaching-learning activities. It covers the goals, the bases, the targets, and the steps of the instructional planning.

In this study, the writer uses Kemp’s instructional design model. It offers an effective instruction, which is based on the learners’ needs and characteristics. It can be applied on any educational level, from elementary school until college. Kemp (1977) states that this instructional design plan is designed to supply answers to three questions, which may be considered the essential elements of instructional technology. The first question is what must be learned. It is directed to formulate the objectives. The second question is what procedures and resources will work best to reach the desired learning levels. It deals with the activities and the resources. The

third question is how will we know when the required learning has taken place. This last question relates to the evaluation.

In order to answer the questions, there are eight steps to carry out in the design process. The relationship of each step in the plan to the other steps is illustrated in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1. Kemp’s Model: The Relationship of each step in the plan to the other steps (Kemp, 1977:9)

The first steps Kemp proposes are considering goals, listing topics, and stating the general purposes for teaching each topic. The second one is enumerating the important characteristics of the learners for whom the instruction is to be designed. The third one is specifying the learning objectives to be achieved in terms of measurable student behavioral outcomes. The fourth one is listing the subject content that supports each objective. The fifth one is developing pre-assessments to determine the student’s background and present level of knowledge about the topic. The sixth one is selecting teaching/learning activities and instructional resources that will treat the subject content so students will accomplish the objectives. The seventh one is

Revise

Goals, Topics, and General Purposes

Learning Objectives Learner

Characteristics

Pre-Assessment

Subject Content Support Services

Teaching/Learning Activities, Resources

coordinating such support services as budget, personnel, facilities, equipment, and schedules to carry out the instructional plan. The last one is evaluating students’ learning in terms of their accomplishment of objectives, with a view to revising and reevaluating any phases of the plan that need improvement. Kemp (1977) also states that this process is flexible. The designer can start with whichever element he/she is ready to start with and then move back and forth to the other steps.

2. Communicative Language Teaching

CLT is an approach that focuses on the use of the target language more than the understanding of the various grammatical rules of it (Nunan, 1989). Nunan states the following:

Language is now generally seen as a dynamic resource for the creation of meaning. In terms of learning, it is generally accepted that we need to distinguish between ‘learning that’ and ‘knowing how’. In the other words, we need to distinguish between knowing various grammatical rules and being able to use the rules effectively and appropriately when communicating (1989:12).

American and British proponents, as mentioned by Richards and Rodgers (1986:66), see CLT as an approach that aims to (a) make communicative competence the goal of language teaching and (b) develop procedures for the teaching of the four language skills that acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication. However, according to Littlewood’s statement (1981:1), as cited by Richards and Rodgers (1986:66), the roles of the language elements are not neglected. He states, “One of the most characteristic features of communicative

language teaching is that it pays systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspects of language.”

a. The Roles of Teachers

As cited by Richards and Rodgers (1986:77) from Breen and Candlin (1980:99), the roles of teachers in CLT are described in the following terms:

The teacher has two main roles: the first role is to facilitate the communication process between all participants in the classroom, and between these participants and the various activities and texts. The second role is to act as an independent participant within the learning-teaching group. The latter role is closely related to the objectives of the first role and arises from it. These roles imply a set of secondary roles for the teacher; first, as an organizer of resources and as a resource himself, second as a guide within the classroom procedures and activities….A third role for the teacher is that of researcher and learner, with much to contribute in terms of appropriate knowledge and abilities, actual and observed experience of the nature of learning and organizational capacities.

Richards and Rodgers (1986) also describe another three roles of teachers. The first role is needs analyst, in which the CLT teachers have a responsibility for determining and responding to learner language needs. It can be done formally by gaining information of the students’ motivation for studying the language through formal assessments, and informally and personally by conducting one-to-one sessions with the students, in which the teachers can discuss the students’ perceptions of their learning styles, learning assets, and learning goals. The second role is counselor, in which the teachers are expected to perform an effective communicator seeking to maximize the meshing of speaker intention and hearer interpretation, through the use of paraphrase, confirmation, and feedback. The third role is group process manager,

in which the teachers have a role to organize the classroom as a setting for communication and communicative activities. In this role the teachers monitor and encourage the students to do communicative activities, and finally give comments and corrections. However, the focuses in Communicative Language Teaching are not on the error suppression and correction, but on the fluency and comprehensibility.

b. The Roles of Learners

In CLT the learners play the active roles. They are not only the lesson receivers but also the active class participants. Breen and Candlin (1980: 110), as cited by Richards and Rogers (1986:77), describe the learner’s role within CLT in the following terms:

The role of learner as negotiator-between the self, the learning process, and the subject of learning-emerges from and interacts with the role of joint negotiator within the group and within the classroom procedures and activities which the group undertakes. The implication for the learner is that he should contribute as much as he gains, and thereby learn in an interdependent way. Richards and Rogers state that even though there is no text, grammar rules are not presented, classroom arrangement is nonstandard, students are expected to interact primarily with each other rather than with the teacher, and correction of errors may be absent or infrequent.

c. The Role of Instructional Materials

Instructional materials have an important role as a guideline that influences the class characteristics. Richards and Rodgers (1986:79-80) state that CLT

practitioners view materials as a way of influencing the quality of classroom interaction and language use. Materials thus have the primary role of promoting communicative language use. Richards and Rodgers mention three kinds of materials currently used in CLT. The first one is text-based materials, which consist of a theme, a task analysis for thematic development, a practice situation description, a stimulus presentation, comprehension questions, and paraphrase exercises. The second one is task-based materials, which are usually in the form of one-of-a-kind items: exercise handbooks, cue cards, activity cards, pair-communication practice materials, and student-interaction practice booklets. In pair-communication materials, there are typically two sets of material for a pair of students, each set containing different kinds of information. The last one is realia, which might include language-based realia, such as signs, magazines, advertisements, and newspapers, or graphic, and visual sources around which communicative activities can be built, such as maps, pictures, symbols, graphs, and charts.

d. Communicative Competence

The main goal of Communicative Language Teaching is communicative competence: the ability to use the target language in the real life. The goal can be gained by focusing the teaching-learning activities on how to use the target language, not only on what to understand. According to Hymes (1972), concluded by Richards and Rodgers (1986:70), communicative competence is what a speaker needs to know in order to be communicatively competent in a speech community. Here, the students

should be able to understand and apply the aspects of competence such as structure, vocabulary, and expressions of communication in order to actively communicate.

Canale and Swain (1980), as cited by Richards and Rodgers (1986:71), identify four dimensions of communicative competence. The first one is Grammatical competence, which refers to linguistic knowledge that contains the knowledge of lexical items, morphology, syntax, semantics, and phonology. It helps the students solve the problems of what words/sentences to say and how to produce them accurately.

The second is Sociolinguistic competence, which refers to an understanding of the social context in which communication takes place, including role relationships, the shared information of the participants, and the communicative purpose for their interaction.

The third is Discourse competence, which refers to the interpretation of individual message elements in terms of their interconnectedness and of how meaning is represented in relationship to the entire discourse or text.

The forth is Strategic competence, which refers to the coping strategies that communicators employ to initiate, terminate, maintain, repair, and redirect communication.

e. Communicative Activities

Activities conducted in classes using communicative approach should focus on the use of the target language, not only on the understanding of the language. 13

Richards and Rodgers (1986:76) state that the range of exercise types and activities compatible with a communicative approach is unlimited, as long as the exercises enable learners to attain the communicative objectives of the curriculum, engage learners in communication, and require the use of such communicative processes as information sharing, negotiation of meaning, and interaction.

Littlewood (1981), as cited by Richards and Rodgers (1986: 76) distinguishes two kinds of communicative activities: functional communication activities and social interaction activities. In functional communication activities, the students are placed in a situation where they must perform a task by communicating as best as they can, with whatever resources are available. In social interaction activities, the students take part in real communications that include social contexts.

3. Teaching Speaking

a. Nature of Speaking and Oral Interaction

Discussing the nature of spoken language cannot be separated from distinguishing between spoken and written language first. According to Brown and Yule (1983), as cited by Nunan (1989:26), written language is characterized by well-formed sentences which are integrated into highly structured paragraphs, while spoken language consists of short, often fragmentary utterances, in a range of pronunciations. They also add that in spoken language there is often a great deal of repetition and overlap between one speaker and another, and speakers frequently use

non-specific references. They suggest that teachers concerned with teaching the spoken language must confront some types of questions. The teachers must figure out what the appropriate form of spoken language to teach is and what a reasonable model, from the point of view of pronunciation, is. They also have to answer the questions such as how important pronunciation is; whether pronunciation is more important than teaching; if it is, what is the reason; whether it is all right, from the point of view of structures taught, to teach the spoken language as if it were exactly like the written language, but with a few ‘spoken expressions’ thrown in; whether it is appropriate to teach the same structures to all foreign language students, no matter what their age is or their intentions in learning the spoken language; whether those structures described in standard grammars are the structures which our students should be expected to produce when they speak in English; and how it is possible to give the students any sort of meaningful practice in producing spoken English.

Brown and Yule, as cited by Nunan (1989:27), also draw a useful distinction between two basic language functions. They are the transactional function, which is mainly concerned with the transfer of information, and the interactional function, in which the main purpose of speech is the maintenance of social relationships. Nunan also makes the distinction between monologue and dialogue. He states that the teachers should not generalize the ability of interacting with others and the ability of making good oral presentations. The second skill is a skill that generally has to be learned and practiced.

Bygate, as cited by Nunan (1989:30), differentiates skills in speaking into two. The first skill is motor-perceptive skills, which are concerned with correctly using the sounds and structures of the language. The second skill is interactional skills, which involve using motor-perceptive skills for the purpose of communication. Until relatively recently, it was assumed that mastery of motor-perceptive skills was all that one needed to communicative successfully. Bygate gives suggestion that in particular, learners need to develop skills in the management of interaction and also in the negotiation of meaning. The management of interaction involves things like knowing when and how to start a conversation, how to invite someone to talk, how to keep the conversation going, and when and how to terminate the conversation. Negotiation of meaning refers to the skill of making sure the person we are speaking to has correctly understood us and that we have correctly understood them.

Nunan (1989:32) also discusses two different approaches in teaching speaking, bottom-up and top-down approach. The bottom-up approach to speaking suggests that we start with the smallest units of language, while the top-down view suggests that we start with the larger chunks of language.

b. Principles for Teaching Speaking

Teaching speaking is quite different from teaching other language skills and elements. There are things the teachers should consider in order to be able to conduct the teaching-learning activity well. Harmer (1998) proposes some substantial points the teachers should discover before conducting speaking activity.

1) Elements Needed for Successful Language Learning in Classrooms

There are three elements needed for successful language learning in classrooms proposed by Harmer. The first one is engage. It is the point in a teaching sequence where the teachers try to arouse the students’ interest, thus involving their emotions. Activities and materials that frequently engage the students include: games, music, discussions, stimulating pictures, dramatic stories, and amusing anecdotes.

The second one is study. It includes any activities where the students are asked to focus on language (or information) and how it is constructed. An example of study activity in speaking class is the study and practice of inviting patterns (‘Would you like to come to the cinema/to a concert?’).

The last one is activate. This element describes exercises and activities which are designed to get the students using language as freely and ‘communicatively’ as they can. The objectives for the students is not to focus on language construction and/or specific bits of language (grammar patterns, particular vocabulary items or functions) but for them to use all and any language which may be appropriate for a given situation or topic. Some examples of activate exercise are role-plays, debates, and discussions.

2) Type of Speaking Activity Students Should Do

It should be clear what kind of speaking activity the students are supposed to do. In this study, the main focus is not to make the students say a lot of sentences 17

using a particular piece of grammar or a particular function, because that kind of speaking belongs to study. Here, the kind of speaking the students are expected to do is almost always an activate exercise, where they use any and all the language at their command to perform some kind of oral task. The important thing is that there should be a task to complete and that the students should want to complete it.

3) Encouraging Students to Do Speaking Tasks

There are three basic reasons why it is a good idea to give the students speaking tasks which provoke them to use all and any language at their command. The first one is rehearsal. Getting the students to have free discussion gives them a chance to rehearse having discussions outside the classroom. It is important for the students to ‘get the feel’ of what communicating in the foreign language really feels like.

The second one is feedback. Speaking tasks where the students are trying to use all and any language they know provide feedback for both the teachers and students. The teachers can see how well their classes are doing and what language problems they are having, while the students can see how easy they find a particular kind of speaking and what they need to do to improve.

The last one is engagement. Good speaking activities can and should be highly motivating. If all the students are participating fully and if the teacher has set up the activity properly and can then give sympathetic and useful feedback, they will obtain tremendous satisfaction from it.

4) Teachers’ Corrections in Speaking

In correcting mistakes made in speaking activities, the teacher should consider the appropriate ways and time to do that in order not to destroy the purpose of speaking activity. Many teachers watch and listen while speaking activities are taking place. They note down things that would be useful to discuss later after the activity has been finished, such as the impressive way the students use in expressing their agree/disagreement or the important mistakes they make. The teachers then can discuss those things with the students. One important thing is they should not single students out for particular criticism. Many teachers even deal with the mistakes they have heard without saying who have made them.

5) Other Considerations for Teachers

In conducting a speaking activity, teachers should be careful in placing themselves and making decisions. They should not get too involved with the students during the speaking activity. It is better to stand back so that they can watch and listen to what is going on. They also should be sensitive with the condition of the class. They should know when the speaking activity should be stopped or be pushed forward.

c. Speaking Activities

1) Characteristics of A Successful Speaking Activity

Ur (1999) mentions characteristics used to measure whether a speaking activity can be regarded to be successful or not. First, learners talk a lot. As much as possible of the period of time allotted to the activity is in fact occupied by learner talk. This may seem obvious, but often most time is taken up with teacher talk or pauses.

Second, participation is even. Classroom discussion is not dominated by a minority of talkative participations: all get chance to speak, and contributions are fairly evenly distributed.

Third, motivation is high. Learners are eager to speak because they are interested in the topic and have something new to say about, or because they want to contribute to achieve a task objective.

Fourth, language is of an acceptable level. Learners express themselves in utterances that are relevant, easily comprehensible to each other, and of an acceptable level of language accuracy.

2) Problems with Speaking Activities

Ur also mentions problems that may appear in speaking activities. The first problem is inhibition. Unlike reading, writing, and listening activities, speaking requires some degrees of real-time exposure to an audience. Learners are often inhibited about trying to say things in a foreign language in the classroom: worried

about making mistakes, fearful of criticism or losing face, or simply shy of the attention that their speech attracts.

The second one is there is nothing to say. Even if they are not inhibited, often learners complain that they cannot think of anything to say: they have no motive to express themselves beyond the guilty feeling that they should be speaking.

The third one is low or uneven participation. Only one participant can talk at a time if he or she is to be heard; and in a large group this means that each one will have only very little talking time. This problem is compounded by the tendency of some learners to dominate, while others speak very little or not at all.

The last one is mother-tongue use. In classes where all, or a number of, the learners share the same mother tongue, they may tend to use it because it is easier, it feels unnatural to speak to one another in a foreign language, and they feel less ‘exposed’ if they are speaking their mother tongue.

3) Solutions

There are some solutions the teachers can apply to solve problems that often appear in speaking classes. First, use group work. Using group work gives many benefits for both the teacher and the students. It increases participation, improves the students’ motivation, allows the teacher to wander freely to give help, encourage and correct the students’ mistakes, and gives the students chances to learn from each other.

Second, base the activity on easy language. Using too complex and complicated language and expecting the students to do so will only waste the lesson time. Basing the explanation and allowing the students to use simple but acceptable language can make them gain the real purpose(s) of the task given.

Third, take a careful choice of topic and task to stimulate interest. Kinds of topic and task have big influences in the success of a speaking class. Interesting topic and task, which are suitable with the students’ needs and wants, can encourage them to truly participate in the class activities.

Fourth, give some instruction or training in discussion skills. Before the students do the task, the teacher must make sure that they have understood well what and how to do the task. Simple but clear explanation can be given before distributing the things needed in the task, e.g. cards and pictures. It will keep the students paying attention while the teacher is explaining.

Finally, keep the students speaking in the target language. Allowing the students to use their mother tongue in class will only create a bad habit. How frequent they forget or do it on purpose when they feel it is too hard to convey their opinion in the target language, keep them trying! If they use the target language, they will be accustomed to do it. They will learn from mistakes. In addition, one encourages others to speak the target language also.

4) Kinds of Speaking Activities

As mentioned before, activities in speaking classes should be focused on the use of the target language. Prabhu (1987:46), as cited by Nunan (1989:66), proposes three principal activity types. The first one is information-gap activity. It involves a transfer of given information from one person to another - or from one form to another, or from one place to another – generally calling for the decoding or encoding of information from or into language. An example of information-gap activity is pair work, in which each member of the pair has a part of the total information and try to convey it verbally to the other. An incomplete picture or a tabular representation with information available in a given piece of text can be used as the means of this activity.

The second one is reasoning-gap activity. It involves deriving some new information from given information through processes of inference, deduction, practical reasoning, or a perception of relationships or patterns. The activity, as in information-gap activity, involves comprehending and conveying information but the information to be conveyed is not identical with that initially comprehended. The reasons underlying the taken choices or decisions in a conversation are the primary things.

The last one is opinion-gap activity. It involves identifying and articulating a personal preference, feeling, or attitude in response to a given situation. The main focuses of this activity are not to judge one’s opinion as right or wrong, and to expect

the same outcome from different individuals or on different occasions, but to use factual information and formulate arguments to justify one’s opinion.

4. Materials Development

Materials include anything which can be used to facilitate the learning of a language (Tomlinson: 2001). Tomlinson states that they can be linguistic, visual, auditory or kinesthetic, and they can be presented in print, through live performance or display, or on cassette, CD-ROM, DVD or the internet. Tomlinson also explains that materials can be instructional (to inform learners about the language), experiential (to provide exposure to the language in use), elicitative (to stimulate language use), or exploratory (to seek discoveries about language use).

Tomlinson (2004:2) also mentions some theories of learning and teaching that are useful for teachers to determine which materials that help them and the students gain the learning objectives the most. Firstly, language learners only succeed if learning is a positive, relaxed, and enjoyable experience. Secondly, language teachers teach most successfully if they can gain some enjoyment themselves from the materials they are using. Thirdly, learners only learn what they really need or want to learn. Fourthly, materials should help learners to connect the learning experience in the classroom to their own lives outside it. Last, materials should engage the emotions of the learner. Laughter, joy, excitement, sorrow, and anger can promote learning; neutrality cannot.

There are two ways of developing materials: materials adaptation and writing materials.

a. Materials Adaptation

Materials adaptation involves changing existing materials so that they become more suitable for specific learners, teachers or situations (Tomlinson, 2004:11). Some principles are mentioned by Tomlinson (2004:13) to be considered by teachers before adapting materials to be developed. Firstly, teachers should give priority to meaning and communication outcomes in the teaching procedures. Secondly, students should experience listening and reading before speaking or writing. Thirdly, teachers should make the learning activities start and end with the learners. The teachers can start the lesson with something known by the learners (e.g. a local story), and connect their lives to the new content (e.g. a story from another culture), then end with the learners (e.g. the learners retell the story using their own words). Last, the teachers should provide listening before reading. Listening can be experienced by, for example, listening to the teachers read a story, listen and mime, and listen and draw.

Tomlinson (2004:15) mentions the procedures of materials adaptation that involve profiling of teaching context, identifying reasons for adaptation, evaluating, listing objectives, adapting, teaching, and revising. Tomlinson also describes that in materials adaptations the teachers can use various techniques that can be divided into three main categories in terms of quantity. First category is Plus (+). The teachers can add and/or expand texts and/or activities. Second category is Minus (-). The teachers can delete, decrease, and/or reduce texts and/or activities. Third category is Zero (0).

The teachers can modify, replace, reorganize, re-sequence, and converse texts and/or activities.

b. Materials Writing

Bell and Gower, as described by Tomlinson (2004:19), start writing materials by articulating the principles which they want to guide their writing although most accounts of materials development describe processes which are spontaneous and which rely on an intuitive feel for activities which are likely to ‘work’. Tomlinson also describes that Hall (1995:8) starts writing by articulating his theories of language learning and insists that before starting to write we need to answer the question: “How do we think people learn language?”

The procedures of materials writing are also described by Tomlinson. They include articulating the main theories of language learning, profiling the target learners, listing objectives and aims, listing procedures which could help to match the theories, the profile, the objectives and the aims in principled ways, and developing a flexible unit framework using procedures from the list.

There are some aspects that should be considered in writing materials. Those are about selecting texts, writing instructions, using illustrations, and arranging design and layout.

1) Selecting Texts

Tomlinson (2004:27) describes that obviously the criteria for the selection of texts depend on what the texts are going to be used for. If the text is used as a basis

for a unit in a set of materials the text should have the potential to engage the learners affectively and cognitively and should offer the learners a rich experience of both language and life. If the text is used as a basis for a reading/listening skills lesson, the text should not be selected just because it focuses on a particular skill which is taught. It still has to fulfill the same criteria as if it is used as a basis for a unit in a set of materials. If the text is for use in language teaching, besides the criteria mentioned in previous part, the text also has to include sufficient samples of the typical use of a particular language item or feature (e.g. the simple past, reported speech, and requests) and provide sufficient contextual information to help the learners understand and generalize about the use of the language item or feature selected for particular attention.

2) Writing Instruction

There are nine aspects discussed by Tomlinson (2004:29) that can help the materials writers to write clear instructions. First, it should be very clear for the learners which words are instructions and which words are not. It can be achieved by putting the instructions in bold, in a distinctive font, in a different colour or in a box. Second, each instruction should refer to one action only. It should also contain only one clause, use an imperative or a simple tense, be in the active voice, and only use vocabulary known to the students. Third, an instruction should use nouns rather than pronouns and use clear indicators by mentioning numbers, letters, colours, or bold type rather than such words as ‘opposite’, ‘above’, or ‘below’. Fourth, it is often

useful to give an example of what you want the learners to do. Fifth, it is important to specify what the learners actually have to do by using specific words such as ‘draw’, ’write’, or ’list’ rather than such words as ‘match’, ’connect’, or ’show’. Sixth, throughout the materials similar instructions should be expressed in similar ways. Seventh, the instructions given should be in the same sequence as the actions you want the learners to do. Eighth, each instruction should be physically separated from other instructions for the same activity. Last, instructions should be staged so that the learners do not have to remember a lot of instructions at once.

3) Using Illustrations

Illustrations in this study refer to all kinds of visual elements in materials. Hill, as cited by Tomlinson (2004:34), points out that photos and drawings are the two major kinds of illustrations widely used in course books. Both have the strengths and weaknesses in terms of effects. Photos are useful to give impressions of reality and authenticity in terms of people, objects, and events. However, photos can lack focus, inhibit learners’ imaginations and date very quickly. Drawings are more flexible than photos and can be made to order in terms of specificity, focus, emphasis, and details. However, drawings can be seen to lack authority and reality, and different artistic styles could induce either positive or negative reactions.

4) Arranging Design and Layout

Layout means structural arrangement of parts (e.g. text and illustrations) (Tomlinson, 2004:35). Good layout can play a significant role in attracting attention, providing focus, sequencing smoothly, separating different sections, attracting aesthetic responses, providing consistency, and providing impact by dramatically departing from the normal layout. The factors that contribute to good layout may include positioning, size, sequence, use of space, balance of visuals and text, separation, and repetition.

Design is an overall plan which governs the appearance and functions of materials (Tomlinson, 2004:36). Materials with good design are likely to be appealing, aesthetic, impactful, functionally clear, easy to use, and cost effective.

B. Theoretical Framework

This study is intended to design a set of English conversation materials for advanced learners of English Conversation Class at Quick Concept Solo. In designing the materials, the writer uses some theories that are used as the basics of this design.

The first principle, taken from Kemp (1977), is about instructional design model. The writer uses Kemp’s model as the guideline to design the materials. Kemp’s offers an effective instruction, which is based on the learners’ needs and characteristics, and can be applied on any educational level. It tries to answer three questions: (1) What must be learned? (2) What procedures and resources will work best to reach the desired learning levels? (3) How will we know when the required

learning has taken place? The process has eight steps: (1) Considering goals, topics, and general purposes, (2) Determining learner characteristics, (3) Specifying the learning objectives, (4) Listing the subject content, (5) Developing pre-assessments, (6) Selecting teaching/learning activities and resources, (7) Coordinating support services, and (8) Evaluating students’ accomplishments.

The second principle deals with Communicative Language Teaching. According to Nunan (1989:12), CLT is an approach which focuses on the use of the target language more than the understanding of the various grammatical rules of it. American and British proponents, as mentioned by Richards and Rodgers (1986:66), see CLT as an approach that aims to make communicative competence the goal of language teaching and develop procedures for the teaching of the four language skills that acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication. However, according to Littlewood (1981:1), as cited by Richards and Rodgers (1986:66), the roles of the language elements cannot be neglected at all. In CLT, according to Breen and Candlin (1980), as cited by Richards and Rodgers (1986:77), the teachers have roles as a facilitator, participant, organizer, guide, researcher, and also learner. Richards and Rodgers add that the teachers also play roles as a need analyst, counselor, and group process manager. According to Breen and Candlin, as cited by Richards and Rogers (1986:77), the students in CLT have a role as a negotiator between the self, the learning process, and also the subject of learning. What they contribute should be as much as what they gain. Richards and Rodgers (1986:79-80) state that CLT practitioners view materials as a way of influencing the quality of

classroom interaction and language use. Materials thus have the primary role of promoting communicative language use. They mention three kinds of materials currently used in CLT: text-based materials, task-based materials, and realia.

According to Hymes (1972), concluded by Richards and Rodgers (1986:70), communicative competence is what a speaker needs to know in order to be communicatively competent in a speech community. Canale and Swain (1980), as cited by Richards and Rodgers (1986:71), identify four dimensions of communicative competence: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence. Richards and Rodgers (1986:76) state that the range of exercise types and activities compatible with a communicative approach is unlimited. Littlewood (1981), as cited by Richards and Rodgers (1986: 76) distinguishes two kinds of communicative activity: functional communication activities and social interaction activities.

The third principles are those which are used as useful guidelines to teach speaking skill. Brown and Yule (1983), as cited by Nunan (1989:26), mention the differences between spoken and written language. Brown and Yule, as cited by Nunan (1989:27), also draw a useful distinction between two basic language functions. They are the transactional function and the interactional function. Nunan also makes the distinction between monologue and dialogue. He states that the teachers should not generalize the ability of interacting with others and the ability of making good oral presentations. The second skill is a skill that generally has to be learned and practiced. Bygate (1987), as cited by Nunan (1989:30), differentiates

skills in speaking into two. They are motor-perceptive skills and interactional skills. Bygate gives suggestion that in particular, learners need to develop skills in the management of interaction and also in the negotiation of meaning. Nunan (1989:32) also discusses two different approaches in teaching speaking: bottom-up and top-down approach.

Harmer (1998) proposes some substantial points the teachers should discover before conducting speaking activity: elements needed for successful language learning in classrooms, type of speaking activity students should do, encouraging students to do speaking tasks, teachers’ corrections in speaking, and other considerations for teachers. Ur (1999) mentions characteristics used to measure whether a speaking activity can be regarded to be successful or not: learners talk a lot, participation is even, motivation is high, and language is of an acceptable level. Ur also mentions problems that may appear in speaking activities: inhibition, nothing to say, low or uneven participation, and mother-tongue use. Ur proposes several solutions the teachers can apply to solve some of the problems: use group work, base the activity on easy language, make a careful choice of topic and task to stimulate interest, give some instruction or training in discussion skills, and keep the students speaking in the target language.

The writer also uses three principal activity types from Prabhu (1987:46), as cited by Nunan (1989:66), as the basics to determine the teaching learning activities used in the designed materials. They include information-gap activity, reasoning-gap activity, and opinion-gap activity.

Finally, the writer adapts theories proposed by Tomlinson (2001, 2004) discussing about materials development. Here the principles, procedures, techniques, and aspects of materials adaptations and materials writing are discussed.

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY

This chapter deals with the methodology of the study. There are six parts discussed. They are research method, respondents, settings, instruments, data gathering technique, data analysis, and research procedures.

A. Research Method

This study was based on Educational Research and Development (R&D) study. Borg and Gall (1982: 772) state that R&D is a process used to develop and validate educational products. The steps of the process are usually referred to as the R&D cycle. There are eleven steps in R&D studies. The first step is identifying the product to be developed. This description includes an overall narrative of the proposed product, a tentative outline of what the product will include, how it will be used, and most important a specific statement of the objectives of the product (Borg and Gall, 1982: 776). The second step is reviewing the literature. According to Borg and Gall, one purpose of the literature review is to determine the state of knowledge in the area of concern (1982: 776).

The third step of R&D studies is planning the development program. The most important aspect of planning a research-based educational product is the statement of the specific objectives to be achieved by the product. The forth step is developing a prototype of the product. The fifth step is conducting a preliminary field

test. Borg and Gall state that the purpose of the preliminary field test is to obtain an initial qualitative evaluation of the new educational product (1982: 782).

The sixth step is revising the product in keeping with the findings of the preliminary field test. The results of the preliminary test are used as the bases of the revision. The seventh step is conducting a main field test. The primary purposes of this test are to determine the success of the new product in meeting its objectives, and to collect information that can be used to improve the course in its next revision (Borg and Gall, 1982: 84).

The eighth step is revising the product in keeping with the findings of the main field test. The ninth step is conducting an operational field test. This test aims to determine whether an educational product is fully ready for use in the schools without the presence of the developer or staff (Borg and Gall, 1982: 784). The tenth step is revising the product in keeping with the findings of the operational field test. All shortcomings and omissions have been corrected in this step. The last step is disseminating information of the product and setting up a distribution apparatus for making it available to potential users.

In this study the writer did not use all steps in R&D cycle because of efficiency. The steps used included identifying the product to be developed, reviewing the literature, planning the development program, developing the product, conducting a main field test, revising the product in keeping with the findings of the main field test, and making the final product.

The writer identified the product to be developed by stating the reasons why this product should be developed, listing the contents that might be used, and considering the methods to develop the product. She continued the process of the study by reviewing the literature. In this step, the writer did library research to find and collect the literature needed. The writer also conducted a pre-design survey called needs survey to gain information about the learners’ needs. She used all the literature and the pre-design survey results as the guidance to develop the product.

After gaining the literature review needed, the writer then planned the development program. Here, the writer used the results of the pre-design survey to specify the objectives of the product. She also planned the sources, the methods, the topics and the contents that would be used in the product. In this step, the syllabus and the lesson plan were being designed.

When the plans of the development program had been determined, the writer started the designing process. She collected all the sources needed. They were in forms of text, pictures, and audio materials. After that she developed the materials by combining available materials from different sources. In this designing process, she also created new materials to complete the design.

The writer conducted a main field test in the form of post-design survey. She distributed the designed materials to be evaluated by the respondents. The respondents could give their feedback by answering the evaluation questionnaires and evaluation interviews.

The results of the post-design survey were then used as the reference to revise the product. The writer collected the respondents’ responses, analyzed them into quantitative and qualitative data, and made revision. The product that has been revised is presented in this thesis as the final product.

B. Research Respondents

There were two groups of respondents involved in this study. The first group consisted of 12 learners who were asked to give responses in the needs survey. All of them were advanced learners who have finished 55 meetings in the course. They were high school and college students. Their participations in this survey were intended to give the writer information about what kinds of materials that interested and were needed by them.

The second group consisted of three English teachers at Quick Concept English Course Solo, two representative learners of the class, and an expert. They were asked to answer the evaluation questionnaires. They were also expected to give further information and suggestions through interviews. Their participations were intended to give the writer useful information and suggestions to improve the designed materials.

C. Research Setting

This study was conducted in Quick Concept English Course Solo. The pre-design and post-pre-design surveys were conducted in the course that is located in Jalan Kawung 3, Solo.

D. Research Instruments

There were two kinds of instruments used in this research: questionnaires and interviews.

1. Questionnaires

There were two kinds of questionnaires used in this study. The first ones were the needs survey questionnaires directed to the advanced learners of the English Conversation Class at Quick Concept English Course Solo. There were 8 questions intended to gain the information about the learners’ needs, motivations and interests. The questions were closed-form questions, but there were spaces provided if the respondents wanted to give other answers.

The second ones were the evaluation questionnaires directed to the teachers of the course, the representative learners, and the expert. The questionnaires consisted of two parts. The first part consisted of closed-form questions, while the second part consisted of open-form questions where the respondents were freed to give their opinions and suggestions. These questionnaires were meant to give the writer feedback as the reference to improve the designed materials.

2. Interviews

The interviews were conducted to gain further information from the respondents. There were two kinds of interviews in this study: needs survey and evaluation interviews. Hopefully, the results of the interviews could give the writer more complete and specific information that could not be gained through the questionnaires.

E. Data Gathering Technique

The data from the needs survey, which was gathered through questionnaires and interviews, was collected from the advanced learners of English Conversation Class at Quick Concept English Course Solo. The data collecting for needs survey was done from June 15, 2007 until June 17, 2007. The respondents were given the questionnaires to answer. They were given two days to complete the questionnaires. After the questionnaires were collected, the writer conducted the interviews with them.

The evaluation questionnaires were given to the respondents to fill after the designed materials were complete and read by the respondents. The questionnaires were distributed on January 7, 2008 and collected on January 14, 2008. After all the questionnaires were gathered, the interviews connected with the evaluation were conducted.

F. Data Analysis

There were two types of measurement used in this study. The first one was the measurement of quantitative data, which was data that was gained from the closed-ended questions. The second one was the measurement of qualitative data, which was data that was gained from the open-ended questions.

1. The Quantitative Data

The strengths and the weaknesses of the designed materials were measured by using the central tendency. It consisted of mean, median, and mode. However, for efficiency, the writer only used mean and mode in this study. Mean was used to asses the respondents’ opinions on the designed materials, while mode was used to order the chosen topics and to discover the opinions chosen by the most respondents in evaluation questionnaires. A range of points at scale from one to five was presented in the form of a table. The five points of agreement are explained in table 3.1.

Table 3.1. The Five Points of Agreement

Points of Agreement Meaning

1 Strongly disagree/ very bad

2 Disagree/bad

3 Doubtful

4 Agree/good

The Central Tendency is presented in table 3.2.

Table 3.2. The Central Tendency

No. Opinions Central Tendency

N Mean Mode

Notes: N = Number of participants

The mean is obtained by using the following formula:



 



= The sum of



=

Raw score



=

 

N N = The number of the cases



=

Mean

2. The Qualitative Data

Qualitative data was gathered from the respondents’ opinions and suggestions. Since the data could not be measured, it was presented in the form of list of suggestions.

G. Research Procedures

In this study, the writer did several steps which were started from the preparation and ended by revising the designed materials. The description of the steps can be seen as follows:

1. Preparation

In this step, after determining the topic, the goals, and the general purposes, the writer gathered literature review from books and articles which

Measure your reading comprehension by answering the following questions. 1. What problems are discussed above?

2. What are the solution(s) for each problem?

3. Do you think having consultation via mail in media is a good idea? Why or why not?

In this listening part, you will hear an example of a real conversation related to the topic discussed. Add your vocabulary by learning new words.

(New Concept English for Global Communication 5)

Measure your listening comprehension by answering the following questions.

1. What is James’ problem?

2. What did Mike suggest? How did James respond? (http://images.google.co.id)

Practice in groups of three. Find the best solution(s) for the problem discussed. You have 10 minutes for preparation and 30 minutes for the discussion

1.A company ownerwho is confused of the company’s condition. He/she considers that it is almost impossible to give the employees the Lebaran day bonus. The (http://images.google.co.id) company needs the money for production cost. If the

money is used for giving the employees bonus, the company will not be able to keep producing, that means that it will not be able to survive and hire the employees.

2.An employee representativewho represents all of the employees. He/She has a mission to make the employees get their rights. During these years, the company has not increased the salary, and they never complain. Now, in welcoming the Lebaran day, they want their bonus.

3.A liaisonwho acts as a connector. His/her job is to find a solution for the two sides. He/she should be able to make them find the best way together. All should be the winners, no one should not feel to be lost.

Note your teacher’s feedback of your conversations; discuss the following correct (http://images.google.co.id) patterns to improve your grammar.

Point 1

Point 2

Giving suggestions

a.It would be betterif you save the money first oryou could tryto invest it for your college fee.

b.What about lookingthrough the personal ads in the newspaper? c.Why don’t you joina dating service?

d.It might be a good idea tocheck out single’s night at the bookstore.

Add your vocabulary by finding as many words as possible that are related to the following problems.

Health

……… ………

Finance

……… ………

Relationship

………

……… _{(http://images.google.co.id)}

Gerund as subjects

a. Continuingstudy is very urgent.

Gerund as objects

b. I likeeatingseafood.

Common words followed by gerund

c. You shouldavoid consumingmeals that can cause allergy.

Note: Some verbs must be followed by gerund, e.g. enjoy, appreciate, mind, quit(give up), finish(get through), avoid, postpone(put off), delay, keep, consider, discuss, mention, and suggest.

Prepositions followed by gerunds

ABSTRACT

Sasongko, Amrita Saraswati. 2008. Designing a Set of English Conversation Materials for Advanced Learners of English Conversation Class at Quick Concept

English Course Solo. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

There are two reasons that underline the writing of this thesis. The first reason is the needs of the advanced learners of English Conversation Class atQuick

Concept English Course Solo to improve their English skills, especially their

speaking skills. The second reason is the needs of the teachers at Quick Concept

English Course Solo to have a set of materials as the guidance to conduct teaching/learning activities. Therefore this thesis is intended to design a set of English conversation materials to fulfill both the learners’ and the teachers’ needs.

This thesis attempted to answer two research questions. The research questions are (1) What are the steps of designing a set of English conversation materials for advanced learners of English Conversation Class at Quick Concept

English Course Solo? (2) What does a set of English conversation materials for advanced learners of English Conversation Class atQuick Concept English Course Solo look like?

The writer used some literature review as the reference to design the materials. The literature review includes Instructional Design Model, Communicative Language Teaching, Teaching Speaking, and Materials Development.

In this study, the writer used Educational Research and Development (R&D) study as the methodology. She did not use all steps in R&D cycle because of efficiency. The steps used include identifying the product to be developed, reviewing the literature, planning the development program, developing the product, conducting a main field test, revising the product in keeping with the findings of the main field test, and making the final product.

To answer the first research question, the writer followed the eight steps in Kemp’s instructional design model. They are (1) Considering goals, topics, and general purposes, (2) Determining learner characteristics, (3) Specifying the learning objectives, (4) Listing the subject content, (5) Developing pre-assessments, (6) Selecting teaching/learning activities and resources, (7) Coordinating a support service, and (8) Evaluating students’ accomplishments. Since Kemp’s model is flexible, the writer could start the designing with any step that was considered ready to conduct first.

The writer started the designing process by conducting needs survey to gain the information of the students’ needs and wants. She used two instruments in this survey: questionnaire and interview. The survey included 12 advanced learners of English Conversation Class at Quick Concept English Course Solo as the respondents. The results of the pre-design survey were used as the guidance to design the materials.

After the materials had been designed, the writer conducted post-design survey by distributing evaluation questionnaires and conducting interviews with the respondents. The respondents consisted of two English teachers at Quick Concept

English Course Solo, two representative learners, and an expert. The results of the post-design survey were used as the guidance to improve the materials.

The materials that have been improved become the final version of the designed materials. There are eight topics discussed in eight units. They include “The Most Impressive Experience”; “The Future”; “The Hottest News”; “The Unique Customs”; “Technology, Information, and Communication”; “The Social Issues; Interviews; and Problem Solving”.

In each unit there are four main parts. Part A, “Learn It”, includes reading and listening parts. This part is intended to give the learners experiences of the related topics. Part B, “Let’s Try”, is the main part of the whole units where the learners are to practice speaking. In this part there are some tasks that direct the learners to do speaking activities. Part C, “Feedback”, has two discussions: “Grammar Point” and “Words Bank”. In this part, there are some discussions of grammar and vocabulary that are discussed in the previous parts. Part D, “Homework”, gives instruction to the learners about what to do and prepare at home for the next meeting.

ABSTRAK

Sasongko, Amrita Saraswati. 2008. Designing a Set of English Conversation Materials for Advanced Learners of English Conversation Class at Quick Concept

English Course Solo. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Ada dua alasan yang mendasari penulisan skripsi ini. Alasan pertama adalah kebutuhan siswa-siswi tingkat Advanced di Kelas Percakapan Bahasa Inggris di

Quick Concept English Course Solo untuk mengembangkan kemampuan Bahasa

Inggris mereka, terutama kemampuan berbicara. Alasan yang kedua adalah kebutuhan para pengajar di Quick Concept English Course Solo untuk mempunyai satu set materi sebagai panduan untuk menyelenggarakan kegiatan belajar mengajar. Oleh karena itu, skripsi ini dimaksudkan untuk mendesain satu set materi percakapan untuk memenuhi baik kebutuhan siswa-siswi maupun kebutuhan para pengajar.

Skripsi ini mencoba menjawab dua pertanyaan. Pertanyaan-pertanyaan tersebut adalah (1) Apa langkah-langkah dalam mendesain satu set materi percakapan Bahasa Inggris untuk siswa-siswi tingkat Advanced di Kelas Percakapan Bahasa Inggris diQuick Concept English Course Solo? (2) Seperti apakah penyajian satu set materi percakapan Bahasa Inggris untuk siswa-siswi tingkat Advanced di Kelas Percakapan Bahasa Inggris diQuick ConceptEnglish Course Solo?

Penulis menggunakan beberapa kajian literatur sebagai referensi dalam mendesain materi. Kajian literatur tersebut mencakup Instructional Design Model, Communicative Language Teaching, Teaching Speaking, dan Materials Development.

Dalam studi ini, penulis menggunakan Educational Research and Development (R&D) study sebagai metodologinya. Penulis tidak menggunakan semua langkah dalam R&D untuk efisiensi. Langkah-langkah yang digunakan mencakup identivikasi produk untuk dikembangkan, meninjau literature, merencanakan program pengembangan, mengembangkan produk, mengadakan test di area utama, merevisi produk berdasarkan hasil test di area utama, dan membuat produk akhir.

Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama, penulis mengikuti delapan langkah dalam model desain Kemp. Langkah-langkahnya adalah (1) Menentukan sasaran, topik, dan tujuan umum, (2) Menentukan karakteristik siswa-siswi, (3) Mendiskripsikan tujuan pembelajaran, (4) Membuat isi pelajaran, (5) Melaksanakan pre-test, (6) Memilih aktivitas belajar mengajar dan sumber-sumbernya, (7) Mengkoordinasi fasilitas pendukung, (8) Melakukan penilaian atas pencapaian siswa-siswi. Karena model desain Kemp fleksibel, penulis dapat memulai mendesain dengan langkah apapun yang dinilai siap untuk dilakukan pertama kali.

Penulis memulai proses mendesain materi dengan mengadakan needs survey untuk memperoleh informasi tentang kebutuhan dan keinginan siswa-siswi. Penulis menggunakan dua instumen dalam survey ini: kuestioner dan wawancara. Survey ini melibatkan 12 siswa-siswi tingkat Advanced di Kelas Percakapan Bahasa

Inggris di Quick Concept English Course Solo. Hasil dari survey ini digunakan sebagai panduan untuk mendesain materi.

Setelah materi didesain, penulis mengadakan post-design survey dengan cara membagikan kuesioner dan melakukan wawancara dengan responden. Responden tersebut melingkupi dua pengajar bahasa Inggris di Quick Concept

English Course Solo, dua perwakilan siswa-siswi, dan seorang ahli. Hasil dari post-design survey ini digunakan sebagai panduan untuk merevisi materi.

Materi yang telah direvisi menjadi versi terakhir dari materi tersebut. Ada delapan topik yang dibahas dalam delapan unit. Topik-topik tersebut melingkupi “The Most Impressive Experience”; “The Future”; “The Hottest News”; “The Unique Customs”; “Technology, Information, and Communication”; “The Social Issues; Interviews; and Problem Solving”.

Dalam setiap unit ada empat bagian utama. Bagian A, “Learn It”, melingkupi kegiatan membaca dan mendengarkan. Bagian ini dimaksudkan untuk memberikan siswa-siswi pengenalan akan topic terkait. Bagian B, “Let’s Try”, merupakan bagian pokok dari keseluruhan unit, di mana siswa-siswi harus praktek berbicara. Dalam bagian ini ada beberapa tugas yang menugaskan siswa-siswi untuk melakukan kegiatan berbicara. Bagian C, “Feedback”, mempunyai dua pembahasan “Grammar Point” dan “Words Bank”. Dalam bagian ini ada beberapa pembahasan tentang grammar dan kata-kata yang didiskusikan di bagian-bagian sebelumnya. Bagian D, “Homework”, memberikan perintah kepada siswa-siswi tentang apa yang harus dilakukan dan dipersiapkan untuk pertemuan berikutnya.