Theoretical description The use of extrinsic rewards by an english theacher in elementary school : a case study.

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter contains theories that support the study. The supporting theories are under two sub topics in this chapter. The sub topics are the theoretical description and theoretical framework. The theories and concepts about motivation, extrinsic reward, and elementary school are discussed in the theoretical description. The implementation of the theories in this study will be discussed in theoretical framework.

2.1 Theoretical description

This sub topic consists of an explanation about three theories, which underlie this study. The first theory is motivation theory. In the motivation section, there are explanations about the definition of motivation, theory of motivation in psychology which covers expectancy­value theory, goal theory and self­determination theory, theory of motivation in language learning and English learning which illustrates the application of three theories of motivation in language learning and English learning, and the relation between intrinsic and extrinsic motivations. The second section contains the theory of extrinsic reward. This section covers the definition of extrinsic reward, the use of extrinsic rewards to motivate learning, advantages of using extrinsic rewards in classroom activity, types of extrinsic rewards, and the way to manage the use of extrinsic rewards in class based on Cognitive Evaluation Theory, and behavior indices which illustrates the time to use extrinsic reward in the classroom. The last section in theoretical description is elementary school. It covers two topics namely elementary school students and elementary school teacher. The first section about elementary school students explains the psychological and cognitive development of them and the effect of those developments in their motivation. On the other hand, the second section about elementary school teacher covers explanation about teacher’s role in teaching learning process and the implementation of it in increasing students’ motivation. 2.1.1 Motivation 2.1.1.1 Definition of Motivation Worchel and Shebilske define motivation as a reason why an organism acts in a certain way in certain time caused by some energy or source from the body which devices temporarily translates the capabilities into actions Worchel and Shebilske, 1989: 373 ­ 374. However, others even wrongly define motive as motivation. Motive is the condition that energizes and directs the behavior. When there is a crowd in the market, someone will have a motive to come closer and be motivated to know what happened there Worchel, 1989: 373.

2.1.1.2 Theory of Motivation in Psychology

There are three major theories of motivation in psychology. They are expectancy­value theory, goal theories, and self­determination theory. Each theory has its own point of view about motivation in psychology.

2.1.1.2.1 Expectancy­value theory

This theory believes that humans are innately active learners with an inborn curiosity and an urge to get to know the environment and conquer some challenge Dornyei, 2001: 20 Therefore the major attention of this theory is not the learners’ motive but rather what directs and shapes their inherent motivation. Based on the main principles of expectancy value theory, motivation to perform the task determined from two keys: the individuals expectancy of success and the task value Dornyei, 2001: 20. For example when a person is doubtful whether he or she could finish his or her assignment or when he or she realizes that task will not gain him or her, he or she will be uncertain to perform the task. From the educational point of view, experts state some important aspects that determine the expectancy of success. Dornyei tries to categorize it in three aspects Dornyei, 2001: 21. The first aspect is peoples experience in the past attribution theory. This theory, he further argues, tries to explain about how people past experience about success or failure will affect his or her performance. For example: a student who gets an A for his or her exam will have confidence to come in front and answer the teachers question on the other hand the student which get an E, will have low confidence in showing his or her ability. The second aspect is peoples judgment in his or her capability self­efficacy theory. This sense will determine the people choice to attempt in the activities, reveal their aspiration, and show their effort on their performance better. For example: A is a student with low grade in the class. The teacher assumes that this student has to get more exercise. A realize this situation, he or she will not easily show his or her competency in the activities given by the teacher. The last aspect is self­worth theory. It is believed that sense, personal value and worth are the cause of motivated people, especially in the face of competition, failure, and negative feedback. The second aspect of expectancy–theory, based on Dornyei’s explanation, is value Dornyei, 2000: 22. Value affects how much effort people put into activities, how they feel about their outcomes, and how they show their commitment on the activities Stipek, 1993: 22. Children who value sports performance than English will exert more effort on the field than in English class. It happened because they experienced greater pride and satisfaction in this subject than English. Value also affects individual self­esteem. Harter 1987 in Stipek reported his study on this topic. Through his study, he assumes that perception of low competence for the children with high value will have bad effects on their self esteem Stipek, 1993: 22 Stipek also argues that there are three kinds of values relevant to achievement Stipek, 1993: 22. They are attainment value, utility value or extrinsic value, and intrinsic value. Attainment value is the value, which is determined by how the task fulfills the individual needs. Utility value or extrinsic value is value which is determined by the usefulness of the task as a means to achieve the goals that sometimes not is related to the task itself. For example the value to achieve the good grade in the classroom in order to be considered as smart student in the classroom. On the other hand, intrinsic value concerns with enjoyment from doing the task.

2.1.1.2.2 Goal theory

Goal is the engine to fire the action which providing the direction of act Dornyei, 2001: 25. According to Dornyei, the basic concept of this becomes a fundamental approach of motivational process. He states that there are two influential theories in goal theory. The first theory is goal­setting theory. Goal­ setting theory states that act is caused by purpose. In this theory is categorized based on its degree namely specificity, difficulty and goal commitment. The second theory is goal­orientation theory. This theory was developed to explain childrens learning performance in the classroom. It is probably the effective theory to explain about motivation happened in the classroom. The theory, in Dornyei, highlights two contrasting achievement orientations among the students; mastery orientation and performance orientation. The difference between these two orientations is the focus of the students goal. Mastery orientation focuses on the learning content or mastery goal. On the other hand, performance orientation focuses on showing ability, getting good grades, etc or performance goal. Both orientations have different success criteria, which affect different reasons for engaging in the activity.

2.1.1.2.3 Self­determination theory

SDT is an approach to human motivation and personality that uses traditional empirical methods while employing an organism metatheory that highlights the importance of human evolved inner resources of personality development and behavioral self­regulation Ryan, Kuhl, Deci: 1997 This theory investigates the development of people tendencies and personal psychological needs that are the basic of self motivation and personality integration as well as the condition that accompany that process Ryan and Deci: 2000. Based on those perceptions, Deci and Ryan proposed three kinds of needs: the need for competence, the need for relatedness, and the need of autonomy. These needs are essential for facilitating the natural tendencies function for growth and integration as well as for constructive social development and personal well being Ryan and Deci: 2000. The need for competence is a motive which has evolutionary adaptive value to impel the organism to deal more effectively with environment White: 1959 in Stipek, 1993: 60. Stipek states that human beings have few competencies innately provided and need to learn a great deal about how to deal with the environment. Thus, they have to adopt it. The second need is relatedness. Relatedness, based on Deci and Ryan, is a sense of belongingness and related to the persons, group, or culture disseminating a goal. In classroom practice, it means that the teacher has to pay attention to the students feeling of being respected and cared for the teacher, this feeling has a major contribution in accepting the classroom activities value. This kind of need could be shown by giving some feedback toward their works after they have completed the assignments given. The feedback could stimulate the students’ sense of belongingness in the lesson. The last need is autonomy. Some achievement motivation theorists state that, in addition to a need to feel self­determining, they want to believe they are engaging in activities by their own rather than to achieve some external rewards or avoid punishment deCharms: 1976, 1974; Deci: 1975; Deci and Ryan: 1985 cited in Stipek, 1993: 60. Much of the research guided by SDT has also examined environmental factors that obstruct or undermine self­motivation, social functioning and personal well ­ being. There were some harmful effects that were found, but the research also suggests some alternative ways to prevent the three basic psychological needs. From this description, SDT is concerned not only with the specific nature of positive developmental tendencies, but it is also examines social environments that are antagonistic toward these tendencies Deci and Ryan: 2000.

2.1.1.3 Motivation in language learning and English learning

Motivation is also absolutely necessary for the sustained type of learning because of its role as the tool to focus the students attention persistence, and to increase the excitement in class Ausubel, Vovak, Hanesian, 1978: 397. Based on Ausubel and his friends, some research have placed motivation in an important position toward intrinsic and positive motives a curiosity Berlyne: 1996, exploration Montgomery: 1959, activity W.F hill: 1956, manipulation Harlow: 1950; Terrel: 1959, mastery of competence Ausebel: 1956a; white: 1959 and the need of simulation Butter: 1954. Regarding its important function, it is necessary to understand the pedagogical implication of three motivation theories in education and L2 learning which are expectancy­value theory, attribution theory, and self­determination theory.

2.1.1.3.1 Expectancy­value theories

The most important implication of expectancy theory for education is the common sense preposition task for students should be neither too easy not too difficult Slavin, 1991: 333. Slavin concludes that expectancy theory could not be appropriately interpreted to suggest that question asked in class or worksheet items should be answered correctly by only half of the students. An individual question or worksheet item does not actually call for effort, but rather for knowledge which is gained from previous effort. This theory, he argues, also bears more on the criteria for success, as in grading. If some students feel that they are likely to have an A no matter what they do, the motivation will be maximum. On the other hand, if the students feel that they will fail the exam, their motivation will be minimum. From that description, the teacher should improve the criteria for getting an A, in order to make it more difficult but possible to be reached, and make the criteria of getting worst grade easy to be reached for them who have little effort. In L2 learning, expectancy value theories proposed one important component; linguistic self­confidence. Self­confidence in general refers to the belief that a person has the ability to produce results, accomplish goals or perform tasks competently. It is different from linguistic self­confidence. Linguistic self­ confidence is a powerful mediating process in multi language community settings that affects a person motivation to learn and use L2 Dornyei, 2001: 56. Clements 1994 from his research, provided evidence that where different languages community lives together, the quality and quantity factor of the contact between the member languages, will be major motivational factors which also determine the result in the future. Recently, Clement have extended the applicability of the self­confidence construct by showing that it is also significant for L2 in foreign language situation.

2.1.1.3.2 Attribution theory

Attribution is relatively important in understanding how students might interpret the use of feedback on their academic performance, and in suggesting to teachers how they might give feedback that has greatest motivational value Slavin, 1991: 326. In classroom practice, students who believe that their past failures on tasks were due to lack of ability are unlikely to expect to succeed in similar tasks, and therefore unlikely to exert much effort. Obviously, according to Slavin, the belief that students will fail can be self­fulfilling; if the students believe they will fail, they may be poorly motivated to do academic work. The teacher, as the motor in class, has to pay attention to this problem. They have to find an idea to make their feedback effective. The grading system also fit to be included in this theory Slavin, 1991: 324. This grading system could make small differences in achievement level. However, it could be large when the students who receive the poorest grades may assume that they can never learn. 2.1.1.3.3 Self­determination theory Based on the concept of self–determination theory, Deci and Ryan stated two kinds of motivation in learning. They are intrinsic and extrinsic motivation Dornyei, 2001: 27. The first types of motivation deals with behavior performed for its own sake in order to experience pleasure and satisfaction. For example, the joy of the students in doing the activity or task in class. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is motivation which exists because of some extrinsic reward e.g. grades, money, praise etc Dornyei, 2001; 27. Those kinds of motivation express different reasons why the students engage in the activity in class.

2.1.1.3.3.1 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Vallerand 1997 in Dornyei proposed three subtypes of intrinsic motivation Dornyei, 2001: 28. The first subtype is the intrinsic motivation to learn. In this type of intrinsic motivation, a student will engage in the activity for pleasure and satisfaction of understanding something new, satisfy his or her curiosity and exploring the world. Next, there is an intrinsic motivation to achieve something. For example: when a student engages in an activity because it is challenging or because he or she wants to accomplish or create something. The last is intrinsic motivation to experience something new. For example, the “punk street” becomes trend today. Some of the high school students learn how the “street punker” live how they dressed, how their hair cut without knowing about the philosophy of “street punker “. They want to be a “street punker ” because they just want to experience it. Intrinsic motivation is also an abstract thing which could not be examined on face value. So it is rather difficult for a teacher to consider whether their students have intrinsic motivation or not. In order to find out the answer, Stipek 1993: 77 tries to summarize some behaviors which are associated with intrinsic motivation. Students who have intrinsic motivation in learning something will express these kinds of behaviors: 1. The students will spontaneously draw connection between the knowledge that they get from school and the application of it with the activities and interest outside the school 2. The students will ask questions that go beyond the specific task at hand. 3. The students will work on tasks whether or not extrinsic reward is present grades, money. 4. The students will have fun and enjoy working on the tasks 5. The students will take pride in their achievements. Extrinsic motivation also consists of some sub types. Dornyei proposed four kinds of extrinsic motivation Dornyei, 2000: 28. External regulation is the first sub type. External regulation is a form of extrinsic motivation which is coming entirely from external source such as extrinsic reward or threats. This kind of extrinsic motivation is popular among the teacher in this country because, based on the experience, this is the easiest way to grasp the students’ attention on the lesson. The next is introjected regulation. This kind of extrinsic reward is rather similar with social norms, which force the students to follow in order not to feel guilty. For example the rules which are adopted as norms to respect the teacher as someone older than the students. The third kind is identified regulation. A student will be called to have this kind of extrinsic motivation if they engage in the activity based on its usefulness and high values. For example when they feel that English is useful and it promises a better future, the students will agree to follow the English course in their school. Now, there are some students who study something because he or she wants to be like others and does not want to be called old fashioned. Dornyei categorizes that kind of motivation in this last type of extrinsic motivation: integrated regulation. It is the most advanced type from extrinsic motivation, involving choice full behavior that is fully assimilated with the individual’s other values, needs and identity.

2.1.1.3.3.2 The Relation between Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Motivation

The relation between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation is the presence of extrinsic reward, such as grade, praise, money etc as the basic attention of students to engage in the activity or task Stipek, 1993: 67. Traditionally, intrinsic motivation is seen as the ideal motivation in teaching – learning process. There are some advantages which could be gained by having intrinsic motivation in classroom. Stipek concluded three advantages of having that ideal motivation Stipek, 1993: 81 ­ 83. The first advantage is sustaining the desirable behavior. As we realize that extrinsic reward could not always exist in the class. If a student only depends on extrinsic motivation, he or she will not want to do non­rewarding activity. That’s why it is difficult to maintain his or her performance in the class. Intrinsic motivation could also affect on conceptual understanding and creativity. Benware and Deci 1984 in Stipek compared subjects who were told that they would simply be tested on material they were asked to learn to subjects who were told that they were learning material to teach other students. Those who learned the material because it would be tested had poor understanding than those who learned the subject because they have to teach other students. This result clearly shows the different conceptual understanding on using intrinsic motivation. Nicholls in Stipek stated that intrinsic motivation also focuses on the student’s attention. This advantage is discovered by differentiating between learning goals and performance goals. When the students are intrinsically motivated, they are task oriented. It means that the student’s attention is focused on the process of completing the task or making sense and mastering the material Stipek, 1993: 83. Given this advantage, it is important to optimize intrinsic motivation in the classroom. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is judged as the factor which could undermine the intrinsic motivation Stipek, 1993: 67. Some researches support this statement. Besides Deci, Stipek mentions other experts who also conducted the research to prove it. Lepper, Grene, and Nisbet 1971 did a similar study with Deci. They investigated the use of extrinsic reward in preschool children. And the result was extrinsic reward has an immediate effect of increasing the students’ time for engaged in the activity and undermine the real interest of the students in the lesson in the same occasion. Although there were some opinions that rejected the use of extrinsic reward in class, other studies did not find the expected negative relationship between the two types of motivation. Deci and Ryan, again, state that extrinsic reward could also enhance intrinsic motivation if the teacher use it in special way based on its function and aspect Deci and Ryan: 1985. 2.1.2 Extrinsic Reward 2.1.2.1 Definition of Extrinsic Reward Extrinsic reward is an expected reward that is given by someone in some particular purposes Stipek, 1993: 104. Expected reward is a reward which is offered to subject before they are working on the target activity Ryan; Mims; Koestner: 1983 Others said that extrinsic rewards are those that provide satisfaction independent of the learning activity itself and are controlled by someone except the students. Based on the definition above, it seems that extrinsic reward has the same definition as reinforcers. Those, who have opinion that extrinsic rewards are different from reinforcers, have two kinds of reasons why they are different. In Pavlov’s work, for example, a reinforcer is defined as any unconditioned stimulus that evokes some reactions Hergenhanhn and Mathew, 1993: 2. The unconditioned stimulus here, based on him, is not always a desirable stimulus, as provident, Pavlov used a mild acid or electric shock as the stimuli in his research. This concept makes extrinsic reward different from reinforcers because usually extrinsic reward is something which is desirable. The second opinion is taken from The Skinnerian. Reinforcers are things or stimuli which influence more strongly than extrinsic rewards. In the opposite side, some experts use the term “extrinsic reward” and reinforcers interchangeably. Some of them are Stipek in her book “Motivation to Learn”, Walker in his book” Behavior Management: a Practical Approach”, and Johnson in his book “Educational Psychology”. They found the similar definition between reinforcers and extrinsic reward: they are controlled by someone and could strengthen the behavior. Extrinsic reward in this study is the same as Stipek and Deci’s definition. Extrinsic reward is an expected reward that is offered by the English teacher in elementary school for some purposes. This term is used in this study in order to express the negative effect of uncontrolled extrinsic reward in intrinsic motivation in the teaching learning activity.

2.1.2.2. The Use of Extrinsic Reward to Motivate Learning

The basic principle of the use of extrinsic reward to motivate learning is operant conditioning theory Johnson, 1979: 316. There are two famous proponents in this theory: Thorndike and Skinner. Thorndike had not revealed the term operant conditioning theory yet. But he was the first psychologist who built the concept of the theory. In one of his earliest experiments, Thorndike placed a hungry cat in a cage with a door that would open if the cat properly manipulated a release mechanism Johnson, 1979: 214. A plate of food was placed outside the cage to motivate the cat to attempt to get out of the cage. Through a trial and error process, Thorndike found that the cat eventually learned to open the door quickly whenever he was hungry. According to the result of this experiment, he had an opinion that reinforcement or extrinsic reward is important in learning. B.F Skinner is the psychologist who has done the most to develop and apply the ideas originally proposed by Thorndike Johnson, 1979: 214. He used a rat as the object of his experiments. From observing the behavior of the rat in the skinners box, he concluded that when an emitted response is reinforced, the probability that it will be repeated increases. Then he called that process Operant conditioning because the rat operated on his environment by trying out different types of behavior and repeating that behavior that obtains the consequences he wants. The concepts of Skinner in operant conditioning theory become the basic concept of extrinsic reward in teaching learning activity. The students will try to do some actions to get the consequences they want. Those consequences could be some extrinsic reward for those who do some actions.

2.1.2.3 Advantages of Using Extrinsic Reward in Classroom Activity

Most of the previous researches focus on the danger of extrinsic motivation. However, there are still some researchers who are optimistic about the good effect of the use of it. They agree that extrinsic reward are appropriate, effective and without known negative effects in many situations Stipek, 1993: 104. It sounds reliable when we consider some conditions that truly happened in class. Extrinsic reward could be the savior of unintrinsically motivating task. It could produce interesting atmosphere in class, and could develop the students’ willingness to engage in the activity. The teacher could also manage the use of it in order not to have detrimental effects on intrinsic motivation Stipek, 1993: 104. In learning, Ausubel argues that extrinsic reward could influence learning in three general ways Ausubel, 1978: 416. First, extrinsic reward could help to set of meaningful problem by relating a specific sequence or organization of learning activities to specified goal outcome. This goal, in his opinion, is really necessary because without such relatedness goal, learning would often tend to be undirected For example: when the students do not want to answer the question given by the teacher. It is difficult for the teacher to measure the students’ understanding. This condition makes it difficult for the teacher to manage the next activities which are concerned with the students’ understanding. It leads into unrelated – goal activities. Second, extrinsic reward could make the students interested in the activity. It is clear that extrinsic reward could make the students have a good attention on the activity in class. There are so many advantages which could be gained from the students’ attention. For example: the teacher could easily convey the material in the class. Because of the attractiveness of the extrinsic reward, Ausubel arranges a fact that it also encourages the students to not afraid to maintain its response in the next activity. For example: when a children is given a chocolate by a teacher for a good attitude in class, he or she will try hard to be nice in class, although it is done in order to get more chocolate from his or her teacher.

2.1.2.4 Types of Extrinsic Reward

There are different types of extrinsic reward which proposed by Everston and his friends, including symbols, recognition, activities, and materials Everston; Emmer; Clements; Sanford; Worsham, 1984: 54 ­ 56. Each type has its own classification. Symbols are usually used by elementary teachers to communicate a positive evaluation of students work. It includes letter grades and numerical scores, happy faces, checks or check plusses, and also stars or stickers with an appealing design. In my experience, numerical scores are the most common symbol in educational institution in this country. It always becomes a measurement of the stage of intelligence of children. In order to be smart children the students have to reach the highest score in school. With these achievements, both the teacher and the parents will be proud of them. The next is recognition. Recognition rewards, based on them, involve some means of giving attention to the students. Examples are displaying students’ work; awarding a certificate for achievements, for improvement or for nice behaviors students. It may be given on a weekly or monthly basis using some system. For example: the teacher gives “Good Student Award” in every Saturday for the student who has good attitude in class, does not cry and is the most active in the class activity. This system is rarely used in Indonesia. It is because recognition is less popular than symbol in our society. Allowing students to do something special or enjoyable is categorized as a type of extrinsic reward by Everston and his friends. Some privileges, just like free­reading time, game time or game leader, could lead the students to give good response for the activity. This kind of privileges could be found in the kindergarten school when the teacher asks the students to keep silence in the end of the lesson. And those who really do her or his command could leave the class first. The last type of extrinsic reward is material incentives. They define material incentives as objects or value to students. Example includes food, pencil, eraser, games, toys or books. This type is the other common extrinsic reward used by the teacher in Indonesia. Because of its simplicity and easy way to do, some teachers do not recognize the dangerous effect of these kinds of extrinsic rewards. One important point to remember is that there should be a special way to give these extrinsic rewards to the students in order to enhance their intrinsic motivation. In other words, the teacher should have knowledge in maintaining or managing the use of extrinsic rewards in the classroom in order to protect the students’ ideal motivation in learning namely intrinsic motivation. There are some managements that could be applied in the classroom. In this study, the teacher should manage the use of extrinsic rewards by considering the time, kinds and aspects of extrinsic rewards she used in the classroom.

2.1.2.5 The Way to Manage the Use of Extrinsic Reward in Class Based on Cognitive Evaluation Theory

As stated before, Deci and Ryan conclude that there is a way to reduce the negative effect of extrinsic motivation toward the intrinsic motivation. It is done by controlling the use of reward in class based on its function. In order to explain the use of this controlled reward, Deci and Ryan proposed a theory called Cognitive Evaluation Theory Ryan; Mims; Koestner: 1983. This theory, they argue, asserts the effects of extrinsic reward on intrinsic motivation by providing an analysis of the relative salience of the informational versus controlling aspect of the extrinsic motivation. The informational aspect conveys meaningful feedback in the context of self­determination. This aspect could be varying in the effect. It depends on whether the information signifies that person is competent at the target activity suggesting competence or incompetent suggesting incompetent Stipek, 1993: 69. On the other hand, Stipek 1993: 69 states that the controlling aspect of extrinsic reward pressures people toward specified outcomes. If a reward is experienced as making people do something, in other words, if the activity must be done in some particular way at some particular time or in some particular place for the person to receive the extrinsic reward, the extrinsic reward tends to be experienced as controlling. Just the research has shown that informational aspect of extrinsic reward tends to enhance intrinsic motivation and the controlling aspect of extrinsic motivation tends to undermine extrinsic motivation Ryan; Mims; Koestner: 1983. Based on this result, the teacher has to give the extrinsic reward mostly in an informational aspect in order to enhance intrinsic motivation. Based on the theory, Deci and Ryan classified four kinds of extrinsic reward. They are task non­contingent reward, task­contingent reward, performance­contingent reward and competitively­contingent reward Ryan; Mims; Koetner: 1983. Task­non­contingent reward shall be interpreted to mean expected rewards that are given to people for participating in an activity or task. They are rewarded simply for their presence without respect to the completion or quality of task activity. In order to find out its effect on intrinsic motivation, some researchers try to make a comparison study between the use task non­contingent rewards to non­ reward. Deci 1973, in Ryan Mims and Koestner, offered college students 2 for participating in puzzles­solving experiment and found that both rewarded students and unrewarded students had the same intrinsic motivation in doing the puzzles. They also mentioned some experts who also did the similar study. Pinder 1976 replicated this result with the college students, and Swann and Pittman 1977 reported similar result for elementary school children. Thus, it appears that task­ non­contingent reward tends not to decrease intrinsic motivation because they do not create an instrumentality or are not experienced as controlling. The next is task­contingent reward. Deci and Ryan defines task­contingent reward as a reward given for doing the task. For example a student is given a chocolate for doing the task given by the teacher. Task­contingent reward, as stated by Deci and Ryan, is different from the first kinds of reward because it is not only given for those who presence but also have to do some task given. It is usually given for completing the task without gaining information about the quality of performance. Several studies have compared the effects of task­contingent reward with either no reward or task­non­contingent reward in order to find out the evidence of its effect on intrinsic motivation. Deci and Ryan stated some of them. Deci 1971 reported that task­contingent reward decrease intrinsic motivation relative to no reward. Similar results were reported by Weiner and Marder 1978. Cooper and Smith 1977 and Smith and Pittman 1978 also found that task­contingent reward decrease subject’s intrinsic motivation for game activities. Other studies were also done to the children and the result was the same Danner and Lanky: 1981; Fazio: 1981; Morgan: 1981. But some studies suggest that there are some ways to decrease the negative effect of task­contingent reward in students’ intrinsic motivation. Ryan and his friends reported some studies about it. A study by Deci 1972b combined task­ contingent reward with verbal feedback and compared this combination with no feedback, no rewarded group. Although task­contingent reward alone decrease intrinsic motivation relative to no reward, the addition of positive competence feedback averted this effect such that there were no significant differences between no reward group and task­contingent reward group. It also proved by Harackiewicz 1979 and Swann and Pittman 1977. They compared task­ contingent reward plus positive feedback to no reward group, no feedback. Both studies found that two groups did not differ. In sum, many the weight of evidence makes it clear that task­contingent reward decrease intrinsic motivation relative to no rewards if the task­contingent reward are administrated without addition of explicit performance feedback. The second comparison is between task­contingent reward and task­non­ contingent reward. The relation between these two kinds of extrinsic reward is not clear as it is. There are any little support on the hypotheses that task­contingent reward are more undermining intrinsic motivation than task non­contingent reward Ryan; Mims; Koestner: 1983. Pinder 1976 and McIntyre 1977 are mentioned by Deci and Ryan as two researchers who agree with the statement. They expected that under some conditions, task­contingent reward would be more detrimental to intrinsic motivation than task­non­contingent reward. However Deci and Ryan had their opinion about it. According to them, that condition could happen based on the degree of control conveyed by the extrinsic reward. When one must complete a task to get a reward, the task is more likely to be seen as something must be done to get the reward. This makes the extrinsic reward have more controlling aspect than task­non­contingent reward. On the other hand, if the extrinsic reward is used as completion of a task, it could provide as informational aspect about the students competency. In short, from the result of the research, although in some condition task­ contingent reward could provide informational aspect of extrinsic reward, in the common situation, task­contingent reward provides more controlling aspect than informational aspect. It means that task­contingent reward tends to more undermine intrinsic motivation than task­non­contingent reward. The third kind of reward is performance­contingent reward. It is kind of extrinsic rewards, which is given for a specified level of performance, that is, for meeting a set of criterion, norm or level of competence. Some of the researcher had an opinion that this kind of extrinsic reward typically conveys the information about the students’ skill or competence informational aspect. For example: the students could have chocolate if they could answer all the questions correctly. On the other hand, performance­contingent reward, according to Deci and Ryan, is a result of collaboration between two aspects of extrinsic reward namely controlling aspect and informational aspect. By requiring a specified level of performance, the extrinsic reward is taking part as controlling aspect, but it also increases the informational value of the extrinsic reward it self. Considering the example above, it is clear that the students have to answer the question correctly to get the extrinsic reward. It shows the controlling aspect of the reward to the students. However, it also provides the competence information about the students. As other kinds of extrinsic reward, the experts also did some comparison study between performance­contingent reward and both no reward and task­ contingent reward. Based on some research, performance­contingent reward is as effective as no reward on enhancing intrinsic motivation when it is followed only with positive feedback Stipek, 1993: 70. Other studies report another result from the comparison between performance­contingent reward and task­contingent reward. Although the results are mixed, there is a major result that performance­contingent reward enhances intrinsic motivation relative to task­contingent reward without any feedback Ryan; Mims; Koestner: 1983. Competitively­contingent reward is the last types of extrinsic reward based on cognitive evaluation theory proposed by Deci and Ryan. It refers to situations in which the people compete directly with others for a limited number of competitors. For example: there is only one gold medal for the fastest and smartest students of doing the quiz. Deci, Bertley, Kahle, Abrams, and Porac 1981 in Ryan’s and his friends’ did a research on face­to­face competition relative to no reward. They found that this kind of extrinsic reward decreased subject’s intrinsic motivation and controlled the students in engaging in the activity. Lepper and Greene 1974, in Ryan et al did a research of competitively contingent reward relative to task­contingent reward with no reward and the result was the same. From all explanations about kinds of extrinsic reward, each kind of it has special feature in affecting intrinsic motivation. Task­non­contingent reward is the most safely used by the teacher without undermine student’s intrinsic motivation. It is because task­non­contingent reward does not have controlling aspect on the students’ performances. The teacher also could use task­contingent reward without undermining students’ intrinsic motivation. It could be combined by the use of positive feedback in order to strengthen the informational aspect of its reward. It is clear that not all extrinsic rewards bring the negative effect on intrinsic motivation. However, some of them also have negative effect on the student’s intrinsic motivation. In this condition, the teacher plays an important role in maintaining the students intrinsic motivation. Using extrinsic reward to grasp the students attention is not a wrong decision. However, its use should be controlled in order to protect the students intrinsic motivation.

2.1.2.6 Behavior indices: Time to Use Extrinsic Reward in Class

Knowing the procedures of using extrinsic reward in class without bothering students’ intrinsic motivation, it is also important to know the right time to use extrinsic reward in class. Before the teacher uses extrinsic reward in classroom activity, he or she has to pay attention to the students’ behavior which indices their motivational problem. Maehr 1984 in Stipek 1993: 11 ­ 12 describes four behavior patterns can be used as indices of motivational problem in learning. The first problem is the direction of the students’ attention and activity. When they do not pay attention to the class activity or they do another activity in class, the teacher has to pay attention to them. Because this behavior could be one indicator of the students’ motivational problem. The second problem is the students’ persistence. Persistence, based on Stipek’s opinion, is the length of time a person engages in the activity. The students who easily give up in doing the task are one of the examples of this kind of problem. The activity level of the students in doing the task should also get a big attention from the teacher. Stipek argues that the students’ intensity in doing something could be observed from their attitudes. For example, their earnestness in doing their group task. Their earnestness could be showed by their participation, their enthusiasm etc. Performance is the last indicator in this section on Stipek’s point of view. It is the accumulation of all indicators before. The students’ performance in task, whether they are interested enough in the task, or how they choose the difficult task or the easiest one could be the teacher’s consideration in using the extrinsic reward. 2.1.3 Elementary School 2.1.3.1 Elementary School Students Relevant to the subject of the study, the characteristics and development of the fifth grade students of elementary school will be discussed in this sub topic.

2.1.3.1.1 The Psychological and Cognitive Development of Elementary School Students

The students of fifth grade of elementary school, between 10 ­ 12 years old, are eager, enthusiastic, curious about something, learn best when they participate in concrete experience and critical Faw, 1980: 220 ­ 251. These students, with these characteristics, are experiencing some important development during their ages in elementary school. In psychological era, the children are categorized in middle childhood era Raig, 1979: 396 ­ 398. Raig argues that middle childhood is adjusting to the new environment of school and developing work and play habits along with many new interests. During this time, he added, the child experiences many developmental challenges and conflicts that prepare him or her for adolescent and adulthood. This condition also affects his or her psychology as well. Because of the changes, the children have intense curiosity and no longer quite at ease with self and other. It could affect their work habits. They, Raig explains, become overwhelming toward personal and social interest and often have difficulty in sustaining interest in school work. This illustration explains the reason why the elementary school students, sometimes, are hard to concentrate and do not have enthusiasm in completing their homework In cognitive development, their memory and cognitive skill, the ability to think about their own thinking and to learn how to learn, is rapidly growth. They also start to evaluate their own performance self­esteem Slavin, 2003: 81. Slavin’s statement about cognitive development is almost the same as Piaget’s ideas. In the Piaget’s stage about cognitive development, fifth grade elementary school students are included in the concrete operational period. Piaget believes that this period is the central to intellectual functioning in the school–age child Solso, 1991: 376. The students in that age, Piaget says, have some unique characteristics. They are able to classify or group objects, able to string together a series of elements according to some underlying relation and also could make a comparison between some objects. But they are only concern with concrete things. 2.1.3.1.2 The Effect of Child Psychological and Cognitive Development toward Their Motivation Based on their psychological development and their characteristics, the teacher has to pay attention to the students motivation. Because they usually have problems with their interest in school, it becomes really important to manage their motivation in learning. Intrinsic motivation becomes more crucial to be developed, but it also becomes more difficult to be reached. But of course there are still some ways to develop their interest. Extrinsic reward becomes one of those ways. But, again, the teacher has to maintain the use of it in order to prevent their later development. Considering the cognitive development of the students in this grade, the teacher should maintain their way on evaluating his or her students. Extrinsic reward could be one of the ways to appreciate their performance on doing something. It also could affect their ability in classifying the consequences they have in doing something. By using appropriate kinds of extrinsic reward, the teacher could both maintain students intrinsic motivation and their self ­ esteem. 2.1.3.2 Elementary School Teacher 2.1.3.2.1 Teacher’s Role in Teaching Learning Process Teacher is a profession, which needs a special competence in teaching Usman, 1990: 6. Based on Usman’s argument, there are four teacher roles in teaching learning activity 1990: 6 ­ 10. The first role is a teacher as a demonstrator. Teacher who plays a role as demonstrator means he or she should have good competence on the material they teach. As a demonstrator, the teacher has responsibility on delivering their knowledge to the students. The teacher also has responsibility for the students understanding on the lesson. Besides, the teacher also plays a role as a learning manager. A teacher should have the ability to manage the class. As we know, the atmosphere of the class and its surrounding affect the process of teaching ­ learning ability. Here, the role of teacher as a learning manager demands him or her to manage the class atmosphere and surroundings in order to create comfortable condition in teaching learning activities. Third, the teacher as a mediator of a facilitator. Media also plays an important role in classroom activities. By using media, the teacher could be helped to convey material to the students. The knowledge and the ability to use appropriate media in class is the role of the teacher as mediator and facilitator. As an evaluator, the teacher has responsibility in giving feedback to the students. The teacher has to manage the feedback in order to maintain the student’s progress in the lesson. Evaluation is also important for the students in order to measures their capability or progress on the classroom. 2.1.3.2.2 The Implementation of Teacher’s Role in Increasing Students’ Motivation In the scope of motivation, the teacher also has great involvement in determining students motivation. There is a formula about the students motivation to learn something Jones; Jones, 1995: 104. Motivation = Expectation X Value X climate This formula suggests that students will not be motivated unless three components are present. First, they expect they can accomplish the task. Second, they find value in it. Third, they complete the task in an environment supportive of their basic personal needs. From that explanation, it is clear that the teacher has a certain role in students motivation by running their role as a teacher. By running their role as a learning manager, the teacher could create a comfortable environment. Through this role, the teacher also could make the activity or task become valuable. And by being a demonstrator, he or she could convince the students that they could do the task given because they have already learned about it. In the setting of this study, one of the task values given from the teacher could be an extrinsic reward. This value seems to be more interesting for the fifth grade of elementary school then intrinsic terms. By using extrinsic rewards, the students also have challenge to accomplish the task. It could also create such atmosphere that supports the students in doing the task. But, it is also the teachers duty as the learning manager to manage the use of extrinsic reward and the teaching learning process.

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK