The use of extrinsic rewards by an english theacher in elementary school : a case study.
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THE USE OF EXTRINSIC REWARDS BY AN ENGLISH TEACHER IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL: A CASE STUDY
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Elisabet Anita Sulistiyani Student Number: 021214043
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY JOGJAKARTA
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STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY
I honestly declare that this thesis, which I wrote does not contain the works or part of the works of other people, except those cited in the quotations and bibliography, as a scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, January 2007
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WHENEVER TWO OF YOU ON EARTH AGREE ABOUT
ANYTHING YOU PRAY FOR, IT WILL BE DONE FOR
YOU BY MY FATHER IN HEAVEN.
(Matthew 18: 19 20)
I DEDICATE THIS THESIS TO BAPAK,
IBU, MBAK RENI, MAS ARIS AND
MY BELOVED RENDY
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First and above all, I really thank Jesus Christ who gives me a wonderful opportunity to reach one of my dreams. All of my dreams and my hard work would not have come true without His blessing. Through His grace I meet some people who always care about me and also give me so many invaluable experiences that I will never forget all my life.
I thank Drs. Mukarto, M.S., P.h.D., my major sponsor and Laurentia Sumarni, S.Pd., my co sponsor for their patience, kindness, guidance, critiques, and their willingness to spare a lot of time for me that are really encourage me to do the best.
I give my sincere gratitude to Miss Norma, the English teacher of SD Mungkid I Magelang, who share her experience and give me chance to conduct this research in her class. I also thank the fifth grade students in SD Mungkid I Magelang for their cooperation in collecting the data.
I would also thank my angels Geol, Utik, Chiko, Mima and Kristin who always care about me and would be the shoulders to cry on. They make me realize that we are never alone in living this tough life. I would also like to thank all PBI students especially 2002 generation ( Ook and Bita, Krisna and Ajeng, Haryana, Wisnu, Shanty, Woro, Inggrid, Rizakti, mbak Ayu and Genjik ), all Pringgodani 16A’s squad (Meta, Kris, Debby, Rury, Yunia, Sevi, Dhik Tanti, Ratna, Yuli, Lia, Rini, Mas Tinum and the Black Dito ) that offer amazing experiences during these five years, Putra Altar Gereja Petrus Kanisius for their love, the big Bagas family
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especially for Lia and Heru, Ratih, Vira, Yuan and Dewa, Ayut, Aji, Puput, Alfons, Dito, and Mas Louise for the joy their bring to my life. The last but not least, I thank Uus for editing this hard work into great output.
I apologize to those who could not be mentioned in this section. Finally, I thank them for all the suggestions, love, caring, critiques, support, and prayer during the process of the writing of this thesis. May God bless them all.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ... i
APPROVAL PAGE ... ii
ACCEPTANCE PAGE ... iii
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... iv
DEDICATIONAL PAGE ... v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ... vi
TABLE OF CONTENT ... viii
ABSTRACT ... xiii
ABSTRAK ... xiv
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ... 1
1.1 Background of the problem ... 1
1.2 Problem Identification ... 3
1.3 Problem Limitation ... 4
1.4 Problem Formulation ... 5
1.5 Objectives ... 6
1.6 Benefits of the Study ... 6
1.7 Definition of Terms ... 7
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ... 8
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2.1.1 Motivation ... 9
2.1.1.1 Definition of Motivation ... 9
2.1.1.2 Theory of Motivation in Psychology ... 10
2.1.1.2.1 Expectancy Value Theory ... 10
2.1.1.2.2 Goal Theory ... 12
2.1.1.2.3 Self Determination Theory ... 13
2.1.1.3 Motivation in Language Learning and English Learning . 14 2.1.1.3.1 Expectancy Value theory ... 15
2.1.1.3.2 Attribution Theory ... 16
2.1.1.3.3 Self Determination Theory ... 17
2.1.1.3.3.1 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation ... 17
2.1.1.3.3.2 The Relation between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation ... 19
2.1.2 Extrinsic Reward ... 21
2.1.2.1 Definition of Extrinsic Reward ... 21
2.1.2.2 The Use of Extrinsic reward to Motivate Learning ... 22
2.1.2.3 Advantages of Using extrinsic Reward in Classroom activity ...………..….. 24
2.1.2.4 Type of Extrinsic Reward ... 25
2.1.2.5 The Way to Manage the Use of Extrinsic Reward in Classroom Based on Cognitive Evaluation Theory ... 27
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2.1.3 Elementary School ... 34
2.1.3.1 Elementary School Students ... 34
2.1.3.1.1 The Psychological and Cognitive Development of Elementary School Students ... 35
2.1.3.1.2 The Effect of Child Psychological and Cognitive Developmemt Toward Their Motivation ... 36
2.1.3.2 Elementary School Teacher ... 37
2.1.3.2.1 Teacher’s Roles in Teaching Learning Process . 37 2.1.3.2.2 The Implementations of Teacher’s Roles in Increasing Students’ Motivation ... 38
2.2 Theoretical Framework ... 39
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY... 42
3.1 Type of Research ... 42
3.2 Setting ... 43
3.3 Participant ... 44
3.4 Data Collection ... 44
3.4.1 Recording ... 44
3.4.2 Note taking ... 45
3.4.3 Document Analysis ... 46
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CHAPTER 4 : ANALYSIS RESULT ... 48
4.1 The Ocassion in which the Teacher Uses Extrinsic Rewards ... 48
4.1.1 The Activity Level of the Students (ACL) ... 48
4.1.2 The Students’ Performance in Doing the Task (PL) ... 50
4.1.3 The Students’ Attention and Direction in the Activity (ADL) ... 51
4.2 The Management on the Use of Extrinsic Rewards in the Classroom ... 52
4.2.1 The Use of Various Extrinsic Rewards ... 53
4.2.1.1 Based on Everston’s Theory ... 53
4.2.1.1.1 Symbol (S) ... 53
4.2.1.1.2 Recognition (R) ... 54
4.2.1.1.3 Incentives (I) ... 55
4.2.1.2 Based on Deci and Ryan’s Theory ... 56
4.2.1.2.1 TaskContingent Reward ... 56
4.2.1.2.2 PerformanceContingent Reward ... 57
4.2.1.2.3 CompetitivelyContingent Reward ... 58
4.2.2 The Use of Informational Aspect as Major Used Aspect ... 58
4.3 Other Findings ... 60
4.3.1 The Negative Effects of Extrinsic Reward Used by the Teacher .. 61
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CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND
SUGGESTIONS ... 63
5.1 Conclusions ... 63
5.2 Implications ... 66
5.3 Suggestions ... 67
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 69
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xiii ABSTRACT
Sulistiyani, Elisabet Anita. 2006. The Use of Extrinsic Rewards by An English Teacher in Elementary School: A Case Study.
Teachers especially in elementary schools often use extrinsic rewards to get students’ attention and raise their motivation since they are adjusted as the predictor of success in learning. However, the use of extrinsic rewards in the classroom could affect the ideal motivation in learning namely intrinsic motivation. Considering some important functions of intrinsic motivation in learning, there should be a management from the teacher in using extrinsic rewards in the classroom in order to protect the students’ intrinsic motivation. This research is aimed to investigate the teacher’s management in using extrinisc rewards by formulating two research questions: 1) In what ocassions does the english teacher give extrinsic reward in the class? 2) How is the extrinsic reward managed by the English teacher?
The research was a case study. It is a qualitative study in nature. The source of the data gathered was an English teacher in SD Mungkid I Magelang. There were three observations which were conducted to collect the data. The data were in the form of class recording taken from the handy camera, field notes (to clarify everything happening in the classroom), interview script (triangulation) and documents.
The result of the analysis on the first problem is that the teacher used extrinsic rewards because of three considerations namely activity level, performance level, and students’ attention and direction in the activity. The second finding is divided into three parts. The first part is the kinds of extrinsic rewards used by the teacher based on two theories (Everston’s theory and Deci and Ryan’s theory). Based on Everston’s, the teacher used symbol, recognition and incentives during the research. Next, based on Deci and Ryan’s the teacher used three kinds of extrinsic reward based on Cognitive Evaluation Theory namely taskcontingent reward, performancecontingent reward, and competitivelycontingent reward. Second, in terms of aspect, the teacher mostly used informational than controlling aspect. The last section is other findings. It was found that there were some extrinsic rewards, which were used by the teacher, has positive effects for the students’ intrinsic motivation but there were also some extrinsic rewards which has negative effects. As the conclusion, the teacher has a good management in using extrinsic reward, however, she still has to pay attention to some undermining effect which comes from the other extrinsic reward she used. The teachers, then, are expected to encourage his or her awareness in the management of using extrinsic rewards in his or her class. Not only the teacher, the educational institutions could also reflect the teacher’s way in managing the use of such reward. Then, in the future, they could take some effort in giving some worthy information for the teacher about this importance topic. This study, however, is not comprehensive. Therefore, further studies need to be conducted in this area so that there will be more comprehensive understanding of the use of extrinsic reward.
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ABSTRAK
Sulistiyani, Elisabet Anita. 2006. The Use of Extrinsic Rewards by An English Teacher in Elementary School: A Case Study.
Para guru terutama guru – guru sekolah dasar sering menggunakan hadiah untuk megarahkan perhatian dan memacu motivasi para siswa. Hal ini dilakukan karena motivasi dipercaya sebagai penentu kesukesan dalam belajar. Di lain pihak penggunaan hadiah dalam proses belajar mengajar masih menjadi perdebatan karena pemberian hadiah yang tidak terkontrol dapat menimbulkan efek yang tidak baik bagi motivasi paling ideal dalam proses belajar mengajar yaitu motivasi intrinsik. Untuk itu, penting bagi guru untuk memperhatikan pengelolaan pengggunaan hadiah di dalam kelas mengingat pentingnya fungsi motivasi intrinisk dari para murid dalam proses belajar mengajar demi melindungi motivasi intrinsik itu sendiri. Penelitian ini dimaksudkan untuk meneliti pengelolaan hadiah yang dilakukan oleh guru melalui dua masalah penelitian yaitu: 1) Dalam situasi apa guru memberikan hadiah? dan 2) Bagaimana hadiah tersebut dikelola oleh guru bahasa inggris?
Penelitian ini tergolong dalam studi kasus yang bersifat kualitatif. Sumber pengumpulan data berasal dari salah seorang guru bahasa inggris di SD Mungkid I Magelang. Dilakukan tiga kali masa pengamatan di kelas untuk mengumpulkan data – data yang diperlukan. Data – data tersebut terdapat dalam rekaman kelas melalui handycamera, field notes atau catatan kelas (dimaksudkan untuk memperjelas apa saja yang terjadi di kelas), skrip interview (dimaksudkan untuk adanya trianggulasi), dan dokumen – dokumen.
Hasil analisa untuk permasalahan penelitian yang pertama adalah guru memiliki tiga situasi untuk menggunakan hadiah yaitu activity level, performance level, tingkat perhatian dan arah perhatian siswa. Untuk menjawab permasalahan yang kedua, terdapat tiga sub penemuan yang saling berkaitan. Sub penemuan yang pertama adalah jenis hadiah seperti apa yang digunakan guru (berdasarkan teori Everston dan teori Deci dan Ryan). Guru, berdasarkan teori Everston, menggunakan tiga tipe hadiah yaitu simbol, recognition, dan insentif . Selanjutnya, berdasarkan teori Deci dan Ryan, guru menggunakan tiga jenis hadiah berdasarkan Cognitive Evaluation theory yaitu taskcontingent reward, performancecontingent reward, and competitvelycontingent reward. Jenis – jenis hadiah tersebut memiliki efek yang berbeda terhadap motivasi intrinisik. Kedua, berdasarkan aspeknya, guru cenderung menggunakan hadiah yang bersifat informatif daripada hadiah yang bersifat mengontrol. Sub penemuan terakhir adalah penemuan – penemuan yang lain. Di dalam bagian ini diungkapkan bahwa hadiah yang diberikan guru tersebut sebagian besar memiliki dampak yang baik dalam motivasi intrinsik siswa . Tetapi, masih ada pula hadiah yang memiliki efek yang tidak baik dalam motivasi intrinsik siwa.
Sebagai kesimpulan, guru SD Mungkid I magelang memiliki pengelolaan hadiah yang baik tetapi beliau juga masih harus memperhatikan beberapa hadiah yang masih memiliki efek yang tidak baik bagi motivasi intrinsik siswa. Dalam hal ini, guru – guru diharapkan untuk lebih memperhatikan kewaspadaan dalam pengelolaan hadiah di kelas. Bukan hanya guru, lembaga pendidikan terkait perlu pula berkaca dengan hasil penelitian ini. Untuk selanjutnya memberikan informasi yang berharga kepada para guru berkaitan dengan topik yang sangat menarik ini. Penelitian ini masih memiliki banyak kelemahan. Untuk itu diperlukan penelitian – penelitian lebih lanjut tentang topik ini agar dapat dipahami lebih mendalam.
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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the background of the study, problem identification, problem limitation, problem formulation, objectives of the study, benefit of the study, and the definition of terms.
1.1 Background of the Problem
Learning English for young learners has gotten a special attention from the government since the establishment of the new English curriculum in 1994 (Usman, 1997: 148). This curriculum regulates that English should be taught from the fourth grade of elementary school as local load content or optional subject. The purpose of this policy is to get the elementary school students accustomed to the language so that it will be easier for them to follow the English lesson in the higher level. Another purpose is that the government, with the educational institutions’ capabilities and facilities, tries to prepare the youth to be ready to use the language in the working world from the very beginning.
This government’s decision is supported by a theoretical foundation. Based on the critical age hypothesis in second language learning, elementary school students are included in the critical age period that is considered as the best age to learn second language for example English (Rivers, 1970: 353). Therefore, learning English in elementary schools should be regarded as a good way to introduce English in our society. However, the success of second language
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learning is not only determined by age factor. Some other factors also affect the achievement in second language learning.
Motivation is one of those factors that also have major contribution in the success of second language learning. The word “motivation” does not have a single definition. Each expert usually has his or her own definition based on his or her own perception. Woolfolk, for example, defines motivation as something that energizes and directs behavior (Woolfolk, 1990: 302). Brown, in Woolfolk, also has his own definition. He defines motivation as drive, impulse, emotion, or desires that move one to a particular action. As one of the cognitive factors, motivation mostly discussed among the researcher as the important determiner in the success of second language learning. Even it becomes a predicator of success in second language learning because the learner’s attention and involvement of the activities in classroom verified from it (Stipek, 1993: xi)
Realizing the importance of motivation in teaching learning activities, some researchers try to explore more about some types of motivation. There are two types of motivation that become a topic in the last decade; namely intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. Many researchers try to find out the correlation or the effect of those two types of motivation. There is a major difference between these types of motivation. Students who are intrinsically motivated never do exercise or assignment because of reward, praise, grade, fear or punishment because they feel the activity itself is rewarding (Woolfolk, 1995: 332). On the other hand, extrinsic motivation makes the students do the activity based on some extrinsic motivators; such as reward, punishment or praise.
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Based on the research, intrinsic motivation is the ideal motivation in teaching learning activity. The major advantages of keeping intrinsic motivation are the students will really explore the ability and their memory about their understanding on the lesson could stay longer. This explanation makes the teacher arouse students’ intrinsic motivation in the classroom in order to protect the students’ knowledge in the future. Nevertheless, sometimes the actual condition in teaching learning activities forces the teacher to ignore their responsibility in protecting the students’ intrinsic motivation.
1.2 Problem Identification
Considering the condition that elementary school students still have not realized the importance of learning English for their future and English still becomes a difficult subject for them. It would be hard to expect intrinsic motivation from the elementary school students. Then, some teachers try to think about giving reward for example stuff, grade, reward, or praise for the students who are willing to participate in the activities in class. For example, the teacher offers chocolate to the students who want to answer questions, or who want to come in front of the class and read the dialogue.
Some teachers assume that extrinsic reward is the easiest and efficacious way to focus the students' attention and to make the students join the classroom activities. It is true because the teachers only have to prepare the students' favorite things, for example chocolate, toys, or interesting activities and to offer them, and then wait for the result. Actually, it is not only the matter of giving or offering.
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There are some dangerous effects if teachers do not control the use of reward in their classroom.
Researchers find out that uncontrolled reward could have bad effect to the students' intrinsic motivation (Atkinson, 1964; deCharms, 1968; Murray, 1964 in Deci, 1971). “Uncontrolled” means giving or offering extrinsic reward without having some basic considerations about the appropriate time, kinds and the effect of such kinds of extrinsic reward toward students’ intrinsic motivation. Deci and Ryan state that extrinsic reward could be useful in the classroom if the teacher really understands when he or she should give extrinsic reward and how to manage it (Ryan; Mims; Koestner: 1983). Without those considerations, extrinsic reward will cause harmful effects in the classroom activities which could undermine the ideal motivation in learning (Ryan, Mims, Koestner: 1983). Thus, the teacher should be careful in deciding the appropriate time to deliver and in managing the use of it in classroom.
In order to achieve the goal in mastering English, it seems that there should be an investigation about the use of extrinsic reward in elementary school. It should be conducted in order to protect student’s intrinsic motivation in learning.
1.3 Problem Limitation
Related to rationale, the researcher will discuss the reality in elementary school now. It is done in order to know how English teachers in elementary school manage the use of extrinsic reward in her classroom.
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This study discusses the use of extrinsic reward by English teachers in elementary school. To focus the study, the researcher investigates the use of extrinsic reward by an English teacher in SD Mungkid I Magelang. The reason why researcher only chooses one elementary school teacher is that she wants to investigate more deeply on the topic. She chooses the fifth grade students of elementary school in SD Mungkid I Magelang because of the unique characteristics of this class that encourages the teacher to find a creative way to grasp their attention.
SD Mungkid I is one of the elementary schools that still have difficulty in providing the facilities and appropriate methodology to learn English. It is caused by the surrounding, that ignore the importance of learning English, which also influence the students' motivation in learning English. Besides that reason, the researcher also thinks about the time efficiency as the elementary school is close to her house.
1.4 Problem Formulations
1. In what occasions does the English teacher use extrinsic rewards in class? 2. How is the extrinsic reward managed by the English teacher?
1.5 Objectives
This study is conducted to find out when the English teacher uses extrinsic reward to the students. Besides, it is also aimed to find out how the extrinsic reward is managed by the English teacher.
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1.6 Benefits of the Study
Regarding the danger of the use of extrinsic reward to the students' intrinsic motivation, it is important for the teacher to control the use of it in class. This research, first, serves as a reflection toward her teaching method and strategy and as a note to develop the English class in her elementary school. It is important to enhance the students’ motivation in learning English in the higher level.
For the educational institution, this research also plays a role as the media in monitoring the use of extrinsic reward by English teacher in elementary school. The result of the study could be used as consideration to develop the ability of an English teacher to maintain the use of extrinsic reward in class.
Not only the teacher or the educational institution which could get the benefit of this study, further researcher could also take benefit of this study. This research could be used as additional literature for further researcher who is also interested in the topic.
1.7 Definition of Terms 1. Extrinsic reward
Extrinsic reward has two kinds of definition; unexpected and expected (Ryan; Mims; Koestner: 2000). Unexpected means extrinsic reward which is given after the task completion without having been mentioned before, while expected means extrinsic reward that are offered to subjects before they began working on the activity. Each of extrinsic reward has its own management and effect toward the students’ intrinsic motivation.
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This study tends to use the second definition of extrinsic reward; expected reward. This definition is used based on the consideration that the teacher commonly uses this kind of reward. Finally, extrinsic reward in this study is an expected reward which is given by the teacher to the students in the classroom activity based on some criteria.
2. English teacher
Teachers are people who possess specialized knowledge and skills in education (McNergney and Herbert, 1995: 25). They have also fulfilled requirements for certification or recognition by the state that they have met minimum standards for competence practice (McNergney and Herbert, 1995: 25). Based on the definition before, English teacher is a teacher who has specialized knowledge and skills in teaching English and has certification in that scope of knowledge.
3. Elementary school
Elementary school is school for 5 12 yearoldstudents during 6 years educational program
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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter contains theories that support the study. The supporting theories are under two sub topics in this chapter. The sub topics are the theoretical description and theoretical framework. The theories and concepts about motivation, extrinsic reward, and elementary school are discussed in the theoretical description. The implementation of the theories in this study will be discussed in theoretical framework.
2.1 Theoretical description
This sub topic consists of an explanation about three theories, which underlie this study. The first theory is motivation theory. In the motivation section, there are explanations about the definition of motivation, theory of motivation in psychology (which covers expectancyvalue theory, goal theory and selfdetermination theory), theory of motivation in language learning and English learning (which illustrates the application of three theories of motivation in language learning and English learning), and the relation between intrinsic and extrinsic motivations.
The second section contains the theory of extrinsic reward. This section covers the definition of extrinsic reward, the use of extrinsic rewards to motivate learning, advantages of using extrinsic rewards in classroom activity, types of extrinsic rewards, and the way to manage the use of extrinsic rewards in class
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based on Cognitive Evaluation Theory, and behavior indices which illustrates the time to use extrinsic reward in the classroom.
The last section in theoretical description is elementary school. It covers two topics namely elementary school students and elementary school teacher. The first section about elementary school students explains the psychological and cognitive development of them and the effect of those developments in their motivation. On the other hand, the second section about elementary school teacher covers explanation about teacher’s role in teaching learning process and the implementation of it in increasing students’ motivation.
2.1.1 Motivation
2.1.1.1 Definition of Motivation
Worchel and Shebilske define motivation as a reason why an organism acts in a certain way in certain time caused by some energy or source from the body which devices temporarily translates the capabilities into actions (Worchel and Shebilske, 1989: 373 374). However, others even wrongly define motive as motivation. Motive is the condition that energizes and directs the behavior. When there is a crowd in the market, someone will have a motive to come closer and be motivated to know what happened there (Worchel, 1989: 373).
2.1.1.2 Theory of Motivation in Psychology
There are three major theories of motivation in psychology. They are expectancyvalue theory, goal theories, and selfdetermination theory. Each theory has its own point of view about motivation in psychology.
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2.1.1.2.1 Expectancyvalue theory
This theory believes that humans are innately active learners with an inborn curiosity and an urge to get to know the environment and conquer some challenge (Dornyei, 2001: 20) Therefore the major attention of this theory is not the learners’ motive but rather what directs and shapes their inherent motivation. Based on the main principles of expectancy value theory, motivation to perform the task determined from two keys: the individual's expectancy of success and the task value (Dornyei, 2001: 20). For example when a person is doubtful whether he or she could finish his or her assignment or when he or she realizes that task will not gain him or her, he or she will be uncertain to perform the task.
From the educational point of view, experts state some important aspects that determine the expectancy of success. Dornyei tries to categorize it in three aspects (Dornyei, 2001: 21). The first aspect is people's experience in the past (attribution theory). This theory, he further argues, tries to explain about how people past experience about success or failure will affect his or her performance. For example: a student who gets an A for his or her exam will have confidence to come in front and answer the teacher's question on the other hand the student which get an E, will have low confidence in showing his or her ability.
The second aspect is people's judgment in his or her capability (selfefficacy theory). This sense will determine the people choice to attempt in the activities, reveal their aspiration, and show their effort on their performance better. For example: A is a student with low grade in the class. The teacher assumes that this student has to get more exercise. A realize this situation, he or she will not easily
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show his or her competency in the activities given by the teacher. The last aspect is selfworth theory. It is believed that sense, personal value and worth are the cause of motivated people, especially in the face of competition, failure, and negative feedback.
The second aspect of expectancy–theory, based on Dornyei’s explanation, is value (Dornyei, 2000: 22). Value affects how much effort people put into activities, how they feel about their outcomes, and how they show their commitment on the activities (Stipek, 1993: 22). Children who value sports performance than English will exert more effort on the field than in English class. It happened because they experienced greater pride and satisfaction in this subject than English. Value also affects individual selfesteem. Harter (1987) in Stipek reported his study on this topic. Through his study, he assumes that perception of low competence for the children with high value will have bad effects on their self esteem (Stipek, 1993: 22)
Stipek also argues that there are three kinds of values relevant to achievement (Stipek, 1993: 22). They are attainment value, utility value or extrinsic value, and intrinsic value. Attainment value is the value, which is determined by how the task fulfills the individual needs. Utility value or extrinsic value is value which is determined by the usefulness of the task as a means to achieve the goals that sometimes not is related to the task itself. For example the value to achieve the good grade in the classroom in order to be considered as smart student in the classroom. On the other hand, intrinsic value concerns with enjoyment from doing the task.
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2.1.1.2.2 Goal theory
Goal is the engine to fire the action which providing the direction of act (Dornyei, 2001: 25). According to Dornyei, the basic concept of this becomes a fundamental approach of motivational process. He states that there are two influential theories in goal theory. The first theory is goalsetting theory. Goal setting theory states that act is caused by purpose. In this theory is categorized based on its degree namelyspecificity, difficulty andgoal commitment.
The second theory is goalorientation theory. This theory was developed to explain children's learning performance in the classroom. It is probably the effective theory to explain about motivation happened in the classroom. The theory, in Dornyei, highlights two contrasting achievement orientations among the students; mastery orientation and performance orientation. The difference between these two orientations is the focus of the students' goal. Mastery orientation focuses on the learning content or mastery goal. On the other hand, performance orientation focuses on showing ability, getting good grades, etc or performance goal. Both orientations have different success criteria, which affect different reasons for engaging in the activity.
2.1.1.2.3 Selfdetermination theory
SDT is an approach to human motivation and personality that uses traditional empirical methods while employing an organism metatheory that highlights the importance of human evolved inner resources of personality development and behavioral selfregulation (Ryan, Kuhl, Deci: 1997)
This theory investigates the development of people tendencies and personal psychological needs that are the basic of self motivation and personality
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integration as well as the condition that accompany that process (Ryan and Deci: 2000).
Based on those perceptions, Deci and Ryan proposed three kinds of needs: the need for competence, the need for relatedness, and the need of autonomy. These needs are essential for facilitating the natural tendencies function for growth and integration as well as for constructive social development and personal well being (Ryan and Deci: 2000).
The need for competence is a motive which has evolutionary adaptive value to impel the organism to deal more effectively with environment (White: 1959 in Stipek, 1993: 60). Stipek states that human beings have few competencies innately provided and need to learn a great deal about how to deal with the environment. Thus, they have to adopt it.
The second need is relatedness. Relatedness, based on Deci and Ryan, is a sense of belongingness and related to the persons, group, or culture disseminating a goal. In classroom practice, it means that the teacher has to pay attention to the students' feeling of being respected and cared for the teacher, this feeling has a major contribution in accepting the classroom activities value. This kind of need could be shown by giving some feedback toward their works after they have completed the assignments given. The feedback could stimulate the students’ sense of belongingness in the lesson.
The last need is autonomy. Some achievement motivation theorists state that, in addition to a need to feel selfdetermining, they want to believe they are engaging in activities by their own rather than to achieve some external rewards or
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avoid punishment (deCharms: 1976, 1974; Deci: 1975; Deci and Ryan: 1985 cited in Stipek, 1993: 60).
Much of the research guided by SDT has also examined environmental factors that obstruct or undermine selfmotivation, social functioning and personal well being. There were some harmful effects that were found, but the research also suggests some alternative ways to prevent the three basic psychological needs. From this description, SDT is concerned not only with the specific nature of positive developmental tendencies, but it is also examines social environments that are antagonistic toward these tendencies (Deci and Ryan: 2000).
2.1.1.3 Motivation in language learning and English learning
Motivation is also absolutely necessary for the sustained type of learning because of its role as the tool to focus the students' attention persistence, and to increase the excitement in class (Ausubel, Vovak, Hanesian, 1978: 397). Based on Ausubel and his friends, some research have placed motivation in an important position toward intrinsic and positive motives a curiosity (Berlyne: 1996), exploration (Montgomery: 1959), activity (W.F hill: 1956), manipulation (Harlow: 1950; Terrel: 1959), mastery of competence (Ausebel: 1956a; white: 1959) and the need of simulation (Butter: 1954).
Regarding its important function, it is necessary to understand the pedagogical implication of three motivation theories in education and L2 learning which are expectancyvalue theory, attribution theory, and selfdetermination theory.
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2.1.1.3.1 Expectancyvalue theories
The most important implication of expectancy theory for education is the common sense preposition task for students should be neither too easy not too difficult (Slavin, 1991: 333). Slavin concludes that expectancy theory could not be appropriately interpreted to suggest that question asked in class or worksheet items should be answered correctly by only half of the students. An individual question or worksheet item does not actually call for effort, but rather for knowledge which is gained from previous effort. This theory, he argues, also bears more on the criteria for success, as in grading. If some students feel that they are likely to have an A no matter what they do, the motivation will be maximum. On the other hand, if the students feel that they will fail the exam, their motivation will be minimum. From that description, the teacher should improve the criteria for getting an A, in order to make it more difficult but possible to be reached, and make the criteria of getting worst grade easy to be reached for them who have little effort.
In L2 learning, expectancy value theories proposed one important component; linguistic selfconfidence. Selfconfidence in general refers to the belief that a person has the ability to produce results, accomplish goals or perform tasks competently. It is different from linguistic selfconfidence. Linguistic self confidence is a powerful mediating process in multi language community settings that affects a person motivation to learn and use L2 (Dornyei, 2001: 56). Clements (1994) from his research, provided evidence that where different languages community lives together, the quality and quantity factor of the contact between
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the member languages, will be major motivational factors which also determine the result in the future. Recently, Clement have extended the applicability of the selfconfidence construct by showing that it is also significant for L2 in foreign language situation.
2.1.1.3.2 Attribution theory
Attribution is relatively important in understanding how students might interpret the use of feedback on their academic performance, and in suggesting to teachers how they might give feedback that has greatest motivational value (Slavin, 1991: 326). In classroom practice, students who believe that their past failures on tasks were due to lack of ability are unlikely to expect to succeed in similar tasks, and therefore unlikely to exert much effort. Obviously, according to Slavin, the belief that students will fail can be selffulfilling; if the students believe they will fail, they may be poorly motivated to do academic work.
The teacher, as the motor in class, has to pay attention to this problem. They have to find an idea to make their feedback effective. The grading system also fit to be included in this theory (Slavin, 1991: 324). This grading system could make small differences in achievement level. However, it could be large when the students who receive the poorest grades may assume that they can never learn. 2.1.1.3.3 Selfdetermination theory
Based on the concept of self–determination theory, Deci and Ryan stated two kinds of motivation in learning. They are intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Dornyei, 2001: 27). The first types of motivation deals with behavior performed
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for its own sake in order to experience pleasure and satisfaction. For example, the joy of the students in doing the activity or task in class. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is motivation which exists because of some extrinsic reward (e.g. grades, money, praise etc) (Dornyei, 2001; 27). Those kinds of motivation express different reasons why the students engage in the activity in class.
2.1.1.3.3.1 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Vallerand (1997) in Dornyei proposed three subtypes of intrinsic motivation (Dornyei, 2001: 28). The first subtype is the intrinsic motivation to learn. In this type of intrinsic motivation, a student will engage in the activity for pleasure and satisfaction of understanding something new, satisfy his or her curiosity and exploring the world. Next, there is an intrinsic motivation to achieve something. For example: when a student engages in an activity because it is challenging or because he or she wants to accomplish or create something. The last is intrinsic motivation to experience something new. For example, the “punk street” becomes trend today. Some of the high school students learn how the “street punker” live (how they dressed, how their hair cut) without knowing about the philosophy of “street punker “. They want to be a “street punker ” because they just want to experience it.
Intrinsic motivation is also an abstract thing which could not be examined on face value. So it is rather difficult for a teacher to consider whether their students have intrinsic motivation or not. In order to find out the answer, Stipek (1993: 77) tries to summarize some behaviors which are associated with intrinsic
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motivation. Students who have intrinsic motivation in learning something will express these kinds of behaviors:
1. The students will spontaneously draw connection between the knowledge that they get from school and the application of it with the activities and interest outside the school
2. The students will ask questions that go beyond the specific task at hand.
3. The students will work on tasks whether or not extrinsic reward is present (grades, money).
4. The students will have fun and enjoy working on the tasks 5. The students will take pride in their achievements.
Extrinsic motivation also consists of some sub types. Dornyei proposed four kinds of extrinsic motivation (Dornyei, 2000: 28). External regulation is the first sub type. External regulation is a form of extrinsic motivation which is coming entirely from external source such as extrinsic reward or threats. This kind of extrinsic motivation is popular among the teacher in this country because, based on the experience, this is the easiest way to grasp the students’ attention on the lesson.
The next is introjected regulation. This kind of extrinsic reward is rather similar with social norms, which force the students to follow in order not to feel guilty. For example the rules which are adopted as norms to respect the teacher as someone older than the students. The third kind is identified regulation. A student will be called to have this kind of extrinsic motivation if they engage in the
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activity based on its usefulness and high values. For example when they feel that English is useful and it promises a better future, the students will agree to follow the English course in their school.
Now, there are some students who study something because he or she wants to be like others and does not want to be called old fashioned. Dornyei categorizes that kind of motivation in this last type of extrinsic motivation: integrated regulation. It is the most advanced type from extrinsic motivation, involving choice full behavior that is fully assimilated with the individual’s other values, needs and identity.
2.1.1.3.3.2 The Relation between Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Motivation
The relation between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation is the presence of extrinsic reward, such as grade, praise, money etc as the basic attention of students to engage in the activity or task (Stipek, 1993: 67).
Traditionally, intrinsic motivation is seen as the ideal motivation in teaching – learning process. There are some advantages which could be gained by having intrinsic motivation in classroom. Stipek concluded three advantages of having that ideal motivation (Stipek, 1993: 81 83). The first advantage is sustaining the desirable behavior. As we realize that extrinsic reward could not always exist in the class. If a student only depends on extrinsic motivation, he or she will not want to do nonrewarding activity. That’s why it is difficult to maintain his or her performance in the class.
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Intrinsic motivation could also affect on conceptual understanding and creativity. Benware and Deci (1984) in Stipek compared subjects who were told that they would simply be tested on material they were asked to learn to subjects who were told that they were learning material to teach other students. Those who learned the material because it would be tested had poor understanding than those who learned the subject because they have to teach other students. This result clearly shows the different conceptual understanding on using intrinsic motivation.
Nicholls in Stipek stated that intrinsic motivation also focuses on the student’s attention. This advantage is discovered by differentiating between learning goals and performance goals. When the students are intrinsically motivated, they are task oriented. It means that the student’s attention is focused on the process of completing the task or making sense and mastering the material (Stipek, 1993: 83). Given this advantage, it is important to optimize intrinsic motivation in the classroom.
On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is judged as the factor which could undermine the intrinsic motivation (Stipek, 1993: 67). Some researches support this statement. Besides Deci, Stipek mentions other experts who also conducted the research to prove it. Lepper, Grene, and Nisbet (1971) did a similar study with Deci. They investigated the use of extrinsic reward in preschool children. And the result was extrinsic reward has an immediate effect of increasing the students’ time for engaged in the activity and undermine the real interest of the students in the lesson in the same occasion.
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Although there were some opinions that rejected the use of extrinsic reward in class, other studies did not find the expected negative relationship between the two types of motivation. Deci and Ryan, again, state that extrinsic reward could also enhance intrinsic motivation if the teacher use it in special way based on its function and aspect (Deci and Ryan: 1985).
2.1.2 Extrinsic Reward
2.1.2.1 Definition of Extrinsic Reward
Extrinsic reward is an expected reward that is given by someone in some particular purposes (Stipek, 1993: 104). Expected reward is a reward which is offered to subject before they are working on the target activity (Ryan; Mims; Koestner: 1983) Others said that extrinsic rewards are those that provide satisfaction independent of the learning activity itself and are controlled by someone except the students. Based on the definition above, it seems that extrinsic reward has the same definition as reinforcers. Those, who have opinion that extrinsic rewards are different from reinforcers, have two kinds of reasons why they are different.
In Pavlov’s work, for example, a reinforcer is defined as any unconditioned stimulus that evokes some reactions (Hergenhanhn and Mathew, 1993: 2). The unconditioned stimulus here, based on him, is not always a desirable stimulus, as provident, Pavlov used a mild acid or electric shock as the stimuli in his research. This concept makes extrinsic reward different from reinforcers because usually extrinsic reward is something which is desirable. The
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second opinion is taken from The Skinnerian. Reinforcers are things or stimuli which influence more strongly than extrinsic rewards.
In the opposite side, some experts use the term “extrinsic reward” and reinforcers interchangeably. Some of them are Stipek in her book “Motivation to Learn”, Walker in his book” Behavior Management: a Practical Approach”, and Johnson in his book “Educational Psychology”. They found the similar definition between reinforcers and extrinsic reward: they are controlled by someone and could strengthen the behavior.
Extrinsic reward in this study is the same as Stipek and Deci’s definition. Extrinsic reward is an expected reward that is offered by the English teacher in elementary school for some purposes. This term is used in this study in order to express the negative effect of uncontrolled extrinsic reward in intrinsic motivation in the teaching learning activity.
2.1.2.2. The Use of Extrinsic Reward to Motivate Learning
The basic principle of the use of extrinsic reward to motivate learning is operant conditioning theory (Johnson, 1979: 316). There are two famous proponents in this theory: Thorndike and Skinner. Thorndike had not revealed the term operant conditioning theory yet. But he was the first psychologist who built the concept of the theory.
In one of his earliest experiments, Thorndike placed a hungry cat in a cage with a door that would open if the cat properly manipulated a release mechanism (Johnson, 1979: 214). A plate of food was placed outside the cage to motivate the
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cat to attempt to get out of the cage. Through a trial and error process, Thorndike found that the cat eventually learned to open the door quickly whenever he was hungry. According to the result of this experiment, he had an opinion that reinforcement or extrinsic reward is important in learning.
B.F Skinner is the psychologist who has done the most to develop and apply the ideas originally proposed by Thorndike (Johnson, 1979: 214). He used a rat as the object of his experiments. From observing the behavior of the rat in the skinners box, he concluded that when an emitted response is reinforced, the probability that it will be repeated increases. Then he called that process Operant conditioning because the rat operated on his environment by trying out different types of behavior and repeating that behavior that obtains the consequences he wants.
The concepts of Skinner in operant conditioning theory become the basic concept of extrinsic reward in teaching learning activity. The students will try to do some actions to get the consequences they want. Those consequences could be some extrinsic reward for those who do some actions.
2.1.2.3 Advantages of Using Extrinsic Reward in Classroom Activity
Most of the previous researches focus on the danger of extrinsic motivation. However, there are still some researchers who are optimistic about the good effect of the use of it. They agree that extrinsic reward are appropriate, effective and without known negative effects in many situations (Stipek, 1993: 104).
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It sounds reliable when we consider some conditions that truly happened in class. Extrinsic reward could be the savior of unintrinsically motivating task. It could produce interesting atmosphere in class, and could develop the students’ willingness to engage in the activity. The teacher could also manage the use of it in order not to have detrimental effects on intrinsic motivation (Stipek, 1993: 104).
In learning, Ausubel argues that extrinsic reward could influence learning in three general ways (Ausubel, 1978: 416). First, extrinsic reward could help to set of meaningful problem by relating a specific sequence or organization of learning activities to specified goal outcome. This goal, in his opinion, is really necessary because without such relatedness goal, learning would often tend to be undirected (For example: when the students do not want to answer the question given by the teacher). It is difficult for the teacher to measure the students’ understanding. This condition makes it difficult for the teacher to manage the next activities which are concerned with the students’ understanding. It leads into unrelated – goal activities.
Second, extrinsic reward could make the students interested in the activity. It is clear that extrinsic reward could make the students have a good attention on the activity in class. There are so many advantages which could be gained from the students’ attention. For example: the teacher could easily convey the material in the class.
Because of the attractiveness of the extrinsic reward, Ausubel arranges a fact that it also encourages the students to not afraid to maintain its response in the
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next activity. For example: when a children is given a chocolate by a teacher for a good attitude in class, he or she will try hard to be nice in class, although it is done in order to get more chocolate from his or her teacher.
2.1.2.4 Types of Extrinsic Reward
There are different types of extrinsic reward which proposed by Everston and his friends, including symbols, recognition, activities, and materials (Everston; Emmer; Clements; Sanford; Worsham, 1984: 54 56). Each type has its own classification. Symbols are usually used by elementary teachers to communicate a positive evaluation of students work. It includes letter grades and numerical scores, happy faces, checks or check plusses, and also stars or stickers with an appealing design.
In my experience, numerical scores are the most common symbol in educational institution in this country. It always becomes a measurement of the stage of intelligence of children. In order to be smart children the students have to reach the highest score in school. With these achievements, both the teacher and the parents will be proud of them.
The next is recognition. Recognition rewards, based on them, involve some means of giving attention to the students. Examples are displaying students’ work; awarding a certificate for achievements, for improvement or for nice behaviors students. It may be given on a weekly or monthly basis using some system. For example: the teacher gives “Good Student Award” in every Saturday for the student who has good attitude in class, does not cry and is the most active
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in the class activity. This system is rarely used in Indonesia. It is because recognition is less popular than symbol in our society.
Allowing students to do something special or enjoyable is categorized as a type of extrinsic reward by Everston and his friends. Some privileges, just like freereading time, game time or game leader, could lead the students to give good response for the activity. This kind of privileges could be found in the kindergarten school when the teacher asks the students to keep silence in the end of the lesson. And those who really do her or his command could leave the class first.
The last type of extrinsic reward is material incentives. They define material incentives as objects or value to students. Example includes food, pencil, eraser, games, toys or books. This type is the other common extrinsic reward used by the teacher in Indonesia.
Because of its simplicity and easy way to do, some teachers do not recognize the dangerous effect of these kinds of extrinsic rewards. One important point to remember is that there should be a special way to give these extrinsic rewards to the students in order to enhance their intrinsic motivation. In other words, the teacher should have knowledge in maintaining or managing the use of extrinsic rewards in the classroom in order to protect the students’ ideal motivation in learning namely intrinsic motivation. There are some managements that could be applied in the classroom. In this study, the teacher should manage the use of extrinsic rewards by considering the time, kinds and aspects of extrinsic rewards she used in the classroom.
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2.1.2.5 The Way to Manage the Use of Extrinsic Reward in Class Based on Cognitive Evaluation Theory
As stated before, Deci and Ryan conclude that there is a way to reduce the negative effect of extrinsic motivation toward the intrinsic motivation. It is done by controlling the use of reward in class based on its function. In order to explain the use of this controlled reward, Deci and Ryan proposed a theory called Cognitive Evaluation Theory (Ryan; Mims; Koestner: 1983). This theory, they argue, asserts the effects of extrinsic reward on intrinsic motivation by providing an analysis of the relative salience of the informational versus controlling aspect of the extrinsic motivation.
The informational aspect conveys meaningful feedback in the context of selfdetermination. This aspect could be varying in the effect. It depends on whether the information signifies that person is competent at the target activity (suggesting competence) or incompetent (suggesting incompetent) (Stipek, 1993: 69).
On the other hand, Stipek (1993: 69) states that the controlling aspect of extrinsic reward pressures people toward specified outcomes. If a reward is experienced as making people do something, in other words, if the activity must be done in some particular way at some particular time or in some particular place for the person to receive the extrinsic reward, the extrinsic reward tends to be experienced as controlling.
Just the research has shown that informational aspect of extrinsic reward tends to enhance intrinsic motivation and the controlling aspect of extrinsic
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motivation tends to undermine extrinsic motivation (Ryan; Mims; Koestner: 1983). Based on this result, the teacher has to give the extrinsic reward mostly in an informational aspect in order to enhance intrinsic motivation.
Based on the theory, Deci and Ryan classified four kinds of extrinsic reward. They are task noncontingent reward, taskcontingent reward, performancecontingent reward and competitivelycontingent reward (Ryan; Mims; Koetner: 1983).
Tasknoncontingent reward shall be interpreted to mean expected rewards that are given to people for participating in an activity or task. They are rewarded simply for their presence without respect to the completion or quality of task activity. In order to find out its effect on intrinsic motivation, some researchers try to make a comparison study between the use task noncontingent rewards to non reward.
Deci (1973), in Ryan Mims and Koestner, offered college students $ 2 for participating in puzzlessolving experiment and found that both rewarded students and unrewarded students had the same intrinsic motivation in doing the puzzles. They also mentioned some experts who also did the similar study. Pinder (1976) replicated this result with the college students, and Swann and Pittman (1977) reported similar result for elementary school children. Thus, it appears that task noncontingent reward tends not to decrease intrinsic motivation because they do not create an instrumentality or are not experienced as controlling.
The next is taskcontingent reward. Deci and Ryan defines taskcontingent reward as a reward given for doing the task. For example a student is given a
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chocolate for doing the task given by the teacher. Taskcontingent reward, as stated by Deci and Ryan, is different from the first kinds of reward because it is not only given for those who presence but also have to do some task given. It is usually given for completing the task without gaining information about the quality of performance.
Several studies have compared the effects of taskcontingent reward with either no reward or tasknoncontingent reward in order to find out the evidence of its effect on intrinsic motivation. Deci and Ryan stated some of them. Deci (1971) reported that taskcontingent reward decrease intrinsic motivation relative to no reward. Similar results were reported by Weiner and Marder (1978). Cooper and Smith (1977) and Smith and Pittman (1978) also found that taskcontingent reward decrease subject’s intrinsic motivation for game activities. Other studies were also done to the children and the result was the same (Danner and Lanky: 1981; Fazio: 1981; Morgan: 1981).
But some studies suggest that there are some ways to decrease the negative effect of taskcontingent reward in students’ intrinsic motivation. Ryan and his friends reported some studies about it. A study by Deci (1972b) combined task contingent reward with verbal feedback and compared this combination with no feedback, no rewarded group. Although taskcontingent reward alone decrease intrinsic motivation relative to no reward, the addition of positive competence feedback averted this effect such that there were no significant differences between no reward group and taskcontingent reward group. It also proved by Harackiewicz (1979) and Swann and Pittman (1977). They compared task
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contingent reward plus positive feedback to no reward group, no feedback. Both studies found that two groups did not differ.
In sum, many the weight of evidence makes it clear that taskcontingent reward decrease intrinsic motivation relative to no rewards if the taskcontingent reward are administrated without addition of explicit performance feedback.
The second comparison is between taskcontingent reward and tasknon contingent reward. The relation between these two kinds of extrinsic reward is not clear as it is. There are any little support on the hypotheses that taskcontingent reward are more undermining intrinsic motivation than task noncontingent reward (Ryan; Mims; Koestner: 1983).
Pinder (1976) and McIntyre (1977) are mentioned by Deci and Ryan as two researchers who agree with the statement. They expected that under some conditions, taskcontingent reward would be more detrimental to intrinsic motivation than tasknoncontingent reward. However Deci and Ryan had their opinion about it. According to them, that condition could happen based on the degree of control conveyed by the extrinsic reward. When one must complete a task to get a reward, the task is more likely to be seen as something must be done to get the reward. This makes the extrinsic reward have more controlling aspect than tasknoncontingent reward. On the other hand, if the extrinsic reward is used as completion of a task, it could provide as informational aspect about the students competency.
In short, from the result of the research, although in some condition task contingent reward could provide informational aspect of extrinsic reward, in the
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common situation, taskcontingent reward provides more controlling aspect than informational aspect. It means that taskcontingent reward tends to more undermine intrinsic motivation than tasknoncontingent reward.
The third kind of reward is performancecontingent reward. It is kind of extrinsic rewards, which is given for a specified level of performance, that is, for meeting a set of criterion, norm or level of competence. Some of the researcher had an opinion that this kind of extrinsic reward typically conveys the information about the students’ skill or competence (informational aspect). For example: the students could have chocolate if they could answer all the questions correctly.
On the other hand, performancecontingent reward, according to Deci and Ryan, is a result of collaboration between two aspects of extrinsic reward namely controlling aspect and informational aspect. By requiring a specified level of performance, the extrinsic reward is taking part as controlling aspect, but it also increases the informational value of the extrinsic reward it self. Considering the example above, it is clear that the students have to answer the question correctly to get the extrinsic reward. It shows the controlling aspect of the reward to the students. However, it also provides the competence information about the students.
As other kinds of extrinsic reward, the experts also did some comparison study between performancecontingent reward and both no reward and task contingent reward. Based on some research, performancecontingent reward is as effective as no reward on enhancing intrinsic motivation when it is followed only with positive feedback (Stipek, 1993: 70).
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Other studies report another result from the comparison between performancecontingent reward and taskcontingent reward. Although the results are mixed, there is a major result that performancecontingent reward enhances intrinsic motivation relative to taskcontingent reward without any feedback (Ryan; Mims; Koestner: 1983).
Competitivelycontingent reward is the last types of extrinsic reward based on cognitive evaluation theory proposed by Deci and Ryan. It refers to situations in which the people compete directly with others for a limited number of competitors. For example: there is only one gold medal for the fastest and smartest students of doing the quiz. Deci, Bertley, Kahle, Abrams, and Porac (1981) in Ryan’s and his friends’ did a research on facetoface competition relative to no reward. They found that this kind of extrinsic reward decreased subject’s intrinsic motivation and controlled the students in engaging in the activity. Lepper and Greene (1974), in Ryan et al did a research of competitively contingent reward relative to taskcontingent reward with no reward and the result was the same.
From all explanations about kinds of extrinsic reward, each kind of it has special feature in affecting intrinsic motivation. Tasknoncontingent reward is the most safely used by the teacher without undermine student’s intrinsic motivation. It is because tasknoncontingent reward does not have controlling aspect on the students’ performances. The teacher also could use taskcontingent reward without undermining students’ intrinsic motivation. It could be combined by the use of positive feedback in order to strengthen the informational aspect of its reward.
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The result of the interview R : intrererviewer I : interviewee Interview ini dilakukan setelah guru melihat semua rekaman dari hasil observasi kelas dan mencocokan field note dengan kenyataan yang ada. R: “gimana mbak? Setelah melihat rekaman tadi? Komentarnya ‘gimana?” I: “malu mbak, melihat hasilnya” R: “baik…..mbak, tadi di rekaman pertama, di hari yang pertama, mbak menawarkan nilai bagi mereka yang mengumpulkan tugas kan?” I: “iya betul” R: “apa latar belakang melakukan itu ya” I: “karena banyak yang tidak mengerjakan. Tambahan informasi saja, saat itu, di pertemuan sebelumnya, saya memberikan PR kepada anak – anak yang tidak mengerjakan PR sebelumnya. Kalo saya lihat anak – anak ada yang tidak begitu tertarik. Mereka mungkin berpikir ‘ndak dapat nilai ya ‘ndak papa. Jadi nilai ini juga bertujuan menunjukan pentingnya PR dan nilai ”. R: “kok waktu hari kedua ‘ndak di tawarkan nilainya?” I: “anak –anak sepertinya kesulitan mengerjakan, makanya saya kasih kesempatan untuk mengerjakan di kelas”. R: “nilai yang digunakan dalam bentuk apa?ABC atau nomor seperti 7,8 dan seterusnya atau sepertiÖ atau -atau yang lain?”
I: “semuanya mbak, biar bisa variasi begitu” R: “nah sekarang ke hari ke tiga dulu ya. Masih inget to mbak?” I: “masih” R: “masih inget kalo di jam kedua mbak menawarkan coklat buat anak yang bisa mengerjakan paling cepat dan paling benar?” I: “iya” R: “pertanyaannya latar belakangnya apa?” I: “ karena saat itu kurang konsentrasi. Banyak yang tidak anthusias juga mengikuti pelajaran. Jadi ndak fokus gitu” R: “kenapa Cuma satu coklat yang diberikan? Sepertinya ada lebih dari satu?” I : “biar anak – anak jadi lebih berusaha.” R: “bukan kurang bergairah ya?” I: “kurang bergairahnya itu ya karena kurang konsentrasi” R: “o..ada latar belakang lain?” I: “ya kadang mereka sibuk sendiri, kadang mereka diem aja kalo ditanya.” R: “kalo di rekaman kan, di hari kedua, juga ada anak yang tiba – tiba bertanya hal lain saat diterangkan.” I: “iya..itu juga salah satunya” R : “terus kenapa di jam kedua mbak?” I: “ya karena di jam kedua biasanya anak – anak loyo begitu” R: “ok..lanjut mbak. Kalo saya amati di setiap pertemuan mbak selalu menyuruh anak yang sudah selesai mengerjakan maju ke depan, itu di depan ngapain mbak?”
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I: “ya menerangkan kembali ..ya mengoreksi.”
R: “apa yang akan mereka dapat kalo mereka maju ke depan? Kok sepertimya anthusias untuk maju ke depan?”
I: “yang jelas feedback dan nilai +”
R: “kok tidak diumumkan seperti yang lain?”
I: “o..itu sudah ada kesepakatan dari awal. Saat pertama kali saya masuk kelas.” R: “jadi yang maju dan benar saja yang dapat nilai?”
I: “iya”
R: “hanya nilai?”
I: “ndak ..dulu pernah kasih coklat juga tapi lama lama anak – anak jadi selalu bertanya ada coklatnya ndak ..saya jadi beralih ke nilai”
R: “lha yang hari ketiga kok ada coklatnya juga?” I: “ya kalo pas ada rejeki”
R: “terus, lagi, latar belakangnya apa?”
I: “daya serap para murid yang berdasarkan saya ingin tahu sejauh mana mereka memahami penjelasan saya.”
R: “dapat dilihat dari?”
I: “ya dari hasil kerja mereka. Kalo dilihat kan banyak yang masih bolak balik berarti masih banyak yang salah”.
R: “ kenapa tidak mencoba games?”
I: “malah bikin anak jadi ndak konsentrasi sama pelajaran, mbak” R: “pernah mencoba?”
I: “iya pernah. Tapi anak – anak malah jadi ribut terus. Sekali ribut ya ribut terus.” R: “mbak pernah dengar istilah seperti intrinsic motivation atau extrinsic reward?” I: “ndak tuh mbak”
R: “dampak penggunaanya juga ndak tahu?”
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xiii ABSTRACT
Sulistiyani, Elisabet Anita. 2006. The Use of Extrinsic Rewards by An English Teacher in Elementary School: A Case Study.
Teachers especially in elementary schools often use extrinsic rewards to get students’ attention and raise their motivation since they are adjusted as the predictor of success in learning. However, the use of extrinsic rewards in the classroom could affect the ideal motivation in learning namely intrinsic motivation. Considering some important functions of intrinsic motivation in learning, there should be a management from the teacher in using extrinsic rewards in the classroom in order to protect the students’ intrinsic motivation. This research is aimed to investigate the teacher’s management in using extrinisc rewards by formulating two research questions: 1) In what ocassions does the english teacher give extrinsic reward in the class? 2) How is the extrinsic reward managed by the English teacher?
The research was a case study. It is a qualitative study in nature. The source of the data gathered was an English teacher in SD Mungkid I Magelang. There were three observations which were conducted to collect the data. The data were in the form of class recording taken from the handy camera, field notes (to clarify everything happening in the classroom), interview script (triangulation) and documents.
The result of the analysis on the first problem is that the teacher used extrinsic rewards because of three considerations namely activity level, performance level, and students’ attention and direction in the activity. The second finding is divided into three parts. The first part is the kinds of extrinsic rewards used by the teacher based on two theories (Everston’s theory and Deci and Ryan’s theory). Based on Everston’s, the teacher used symbol, recognition and incentives during the research. Next, based on Deci and Ryan’s the teacher used three kinds of extrinsic reward based on Cognitive Evaluation Theory namely taskcontingent reward, performancecontingent reward, and competitivelycontingent reward. Second, in terms of aspect, the teacher mostly used informational than controlling aspect. The last section is other findings. It was found that there were some extrinsic rewards, which were used by the teacher, has positive effects for the students’ intrinsic motivation but there were also some extrinsic rewards which has negative effects. As the conclusion, the teacher has a good management in using extrinsic reward, however, she still has to pay attention to some undermining effect which comes from the other extrinsic reward she used. The teachers, then, are expected to encourage his or her awareness in the management of using extrinsic rewards in his or her class. Not only the teacher, the educational institutions could also reflect the teacher’s way in managing the use of such reward. Then, in the future, they could take some effort in giving some worthy information for the teacher about this importance topic. This study, however, is not comprehensive. Therefore, further studies need to be conducted in this area so that there will be more comprehensive understanding of the use of extrinsic reward.
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xiv ABSTRAK
Sulistiyani, Elisabet Anita. 2006. The Use of Extrinsic Rewards by An English Teacher in Elementary School: A Case Study.
Para guru terutama guru – guru sekolah dasar sering menggunakan hadiah untuk megarahkan perhatian dan memacu motivasi para siswa. Hal ini dilakukan karena motivasi dipercaya sebagai penentu kesukesan dalam belajar. Di lain pihak penggunaan hadiah dalam proses belajar mengajar masih menjadi perdebatan karena pemberian hadiah yang tidak terkontrol dapat menimbulkan efek yang tidak baik bagi motivasi paling ideal dalam proses belajar mengajar yaitu motivasi intrinsik. Untuk itu, penting bagi guru untuk memperhatikan pengelolaan pengggunaan hadiah di dalam kelas mengingat pentingnya fungsi motivasi intrinisk dari para murid dalam proses belajar mengajar demi melindungi motivasi intrinsik itu sendiri. Penelitian ini dimaksudkan untuk meneliti pengelolaan hadiah yang dilakukan oleh guru melalui dua masalah penelitian yaitu: 1) Dalam situasi apa guru memberikan hadiah? dan 2) Bagaimana hadiah tersebut dikelola oleh guru bahasa inggris?
Penelitian ini tergolong dalam studi kasus yang bersifat kualitatif. Sumber pengumpulan data berasal dari salah seorang guru bahasa inggris di SD Mungkid I Magelang. Dilakukan tiga kali masa pengamatan di kelas untuk mengumpulkan data – data yang diperlukan. Data – data tersebut terdapat dalam rekaman kelas melalui handycamera, field notes atau catatan kelas (dimaksudkan untuk memperjelas apa saja yang terjadi di kelas), skrip interview (dimaksudkan untuk adanya trianggulasi), dan dokumen – dokumen.
Hasil analisa untuk permasalahan penelitian yang pertama adalah guru memiliki tiga situasi untuk menggunakan hadiah yaitu activity level, performance level, tingkat perhatian dan arah perhatian siswa. Untuk menjawab permasalahan yang kedua, terdapat tiga sub penemuan yang saling berkaitan. Sub penemuan yang pertama adalah jenis hadiah seperti apa yang digunakan guru (berdasarkan teori Everston dan teori Deci dan Ryan). Guru, berdasarkan teori Everston, menggunakan tiga tipe hadiah yaitu simbol, recognition, dan insentif . Selanjutnya, berdasarkan teori Deci dan Ryan, guru menggunakan tiga jenis hadiah berdasarkan Cognitive Evaluation theory yaitu taskcontingent reward, performancecontingent reward, and competitvelycontingent reward. Jenis – jenis hadiah tersebut memiliki efek yang berbeda terhadap motivasi intrinisik. Kedua, berdasarkan aspeknya, guru cenderung menggunakan hadiah yang bersifat informatif daripada hadiah yang bersifat mengontrol. Sub penemuan terakhir adalah penemuan – penemuan yang lain. Di dalam bagian ini diungkapkan bahwa hadiah yang diberikan guru tersebut sebagian besar memiliki dampak yang baik dalam motivasi intrinsik siswa . Tetapi, masih ada pula hadiah yang memiliki efek yang tidak baik dalam motivasi intrinsik siwa.
Sebagai kesimpulan, guru SD Mungkid I magelang memiliki pengelolaan hadiah yang baik tetapi beliau juga masih harus memperhatikan beberapa hadiah yang masih memiliki efek yang tidak baik bagi motivasi intrinsik siswa. Dalam hal ini, guru – guru diharapkan untuk lebih memperhatikan kewaspadaan dalam pengelolaan hadiah di kelas. Bukan hanya guru, lembaga pendidikan terkait perlu pula berkaca dengan hasil penelitian ini. Untuk selanjutnya memberikan informasi yang berharga kepada para guru berkaitan dengan topik yang sangat menarik ini. Penelitian ini masih memiliki banyak kelemahan. Untuk itu diperlukan penelitian – penelitian lebih lanjut tentang topik ini agar dapat dipahami lebih mendalam.