i. Necessities
Necessities, or target proficiency, are something that learners need to master in order to act effectively in the target situation.
ii. Lacks
All that learners cannot do are called lacks. They are the gap between the target proficiency and the existing proficiency.
iii. Wants
Target needs are only seen without learners’ perspective, whereas wants are needs from the learners’ perspective.
b. Learning needs
Having known all the target needs, including the necessities, lacks, and wants, a course needs a tool to reach the target needs. It is needed a way how to
start from the beginning until the target needs are achieved. This is called learning needs. In other words, learning needs are all that are needed to achieve the target
needs.
6. Organizing the Course
Organizing a course is needed to connect the goals and objectives with the actual lessons. It lets us to make decisions about what to study or negotiate
aspects of syllabus. Organizing a course includes some processes. Figure 2.3 explains more about the process. The different arrows show that the processes do
not follow a specific order.
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Figure 2.3: Five Aspects of Organizing a Course
Organizing a course is done depending on some factors. The factors are the course content, teachers’ goals and objectives, teachers’ past experience,
learners’ needs, teachers’ beliefs and understanding, the method or text, and the context.
7. Developing Materials
Developing materials is making, choosing or adapting, and organizing materials and activities in such way in which learners can reach the objectives
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enabling them to achieve the goals. There are some considerations in developing materials proposed by Graves 2000. Activities should relate with learners’
experience or current situation and be relevant to them and focus on their needs outside class. Activities should also increase learners’ confidence and involve
learners in solving, discovering, and analyzing problem. Besides, activities are expected to develop learners’ specific skills and strategies and learners’ specific
language and skills for their authentic communication need. They can be integration of speaking, listening, reading, and writing.
Activities should help learners understand how a text is produced. They may involve cross cultural understanding, so learners can improve their social
awareness. They should be as authentic as possible texts or realia, if it is possible and have variation of roles and groupings. They are also expected to
have various types and purposes and include various materials. However, the way how teachers develop materials differs each other. It is
based on their own beliefs, understandings, and experience. It also depends on their goals and objectives, the way the content is conceptualized, the way the
course is organized and sequenced, and understanding about learners’ needs. Moreover, Kemp 1977: 56 also states that teachers should consider the
strengths and weaknesses of certain materials and activities so that they match to learners’ characteristics and needs and the objectives formulated.
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8. Adapting a Textbook
