18 confronts two unattractive alternatives. Therefore, the most possible way to solve it
is to either leave the conflict or choose one better alternative over the other. The third type of conflict proposed by Kasschau 2003 is an approach-
avoidance type. An individual who wants to do something but has fears or doubts or is repulsed by it at the same time is experiencing an approach-avoidance conflict.
The resolution of this conflict is often very difficult and depends generally on the person’s finding added reason to choose one alternative over the other. The fourth
type of conflict proposed by Kasschau 2003 is a double approach-avoidance conflict. An individual must choose between two goals or more alternatives, each
of which has attractive and unattractive aspects. In other words, this type concerns with choosing one goal and as a consequence in giving up the other goals.
Adler and Towne 1990 propose three manners of taking the decision to do or not to do something in interpersonal conflict pp. 376-380. The first manner
proposed by Adler and Towne 1990 is a win-lose problem solving in which the party gets what shehe wants while another party is not. Therefore, there will only
be one satisfied party. The second manner proposed by Adler and Towne 1990 is a lose-lose problem solving in which neither side is satisfied with the decision. The
third manner proposed by Adler and Towne 1990 is a win-win problem solving. It aims to satisfy both parties. It does not involve compromise in which one should
give up something or find the most correct solution for everybody with similar problem, but it works when the individuals can find the right answer to the problem.
19
4. Theory of Culture
This category consists of four parts. Those parts are 1 the culture, 2 the Chinese and American culture, 3 the culture shock, and 4 the stages of culture
shock.
a. Culture
The definition of culture varies. Geertz 1973 interprets culture as a historically transmitted pattern of meaning embodied in symbol, a system of
inherited conceptions expressed in a symbolic form by means which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge and their attitudes toward
life. In the different definition, culture is a group-related, learned perceptions including verbal and nonverbal codes, attitudes, values, belief and disbelief
systems, plus accepted and expected codes behavior taught by the groups with which we identify Heine, 2008.
b. Chinese and American Culture
Chinese and American culture are dissimilar in values, attitudes, and beliefs. According to Xiao 2001, the value constructs found in the United States is not
identical to those found in mainland China p. 12. According to Xiao 2001 a fundamental reason for the variation of values is that values are deeply rooted in
ideology. Thus, the different ideologies indicate the presence of the differences between China and America. According to Xiao 2001 in America, the ideology
emphasizes self-reliance and individual s’ responsibility and dictates that
individuals are personally responsible for their own progress. It can be concluded that in China, self-help and self-reliance are also much emphasized. According to
20 Xiao 2001 the primary purpose of the emphasis is not to pursue personal
happiness and success but rather to contribute to the glory of the family and the well-being of the society. Beside, according to Xiao 2001, while American is
centered on the value of Judeo-Christians roots, Chinese culture is built upon a value system crystallized in Confucianism p. 111. Chinese do the
ancestors’ worship to maintain the family line. Chinese seem to have traditional point of views
than American do. According to Xiao 2001 in China, people believe in karma about
one’s behaviors always owned in later life and afterlife Xiao, 2001, p. 138 According to Xiao 2001, in an American society, females are taught to be
more submissive, passive, obedient, and nurturing than males p. 12. On the other hand, according to Xiao 2001 in regard to socialization values, researchers seem
to agree that, traditionally, Chinese patriarchy shapes the structure of authority and control of property in the Chinese family. It can be concluded that in this system,
womens situations are most pitiable than men. On the other words, men occupy a higher class position than women do in China. According to Smith 1994, the boys
in China are considered as crucial and important because they will continue the family line and maintain the ancestral sacrifice p. 248. Therefore, it makes boys
more crucial than girls and have better position in China. According to Smith 1994, China is said to be a classless society in the sense
that no person is better than any other in social ranking. Each individual is a full member of the big family; therefore, each member has the social responsibility of
serving and cooperating with other members toward shared goals. It can be concluded that Chinese tends to be collective-oriented culture. According to Smith
21 1994, American culture is often considered an individualism-oriented culture, in
contrast with Chinese culture, which emphasizes collectivism. In collective cultures, individuals are willing to subordinate their personal goals to the goals of
various in-groups, such as the family, the tribe, or the work group. By contrast, in individualistic cultures, it is considered to be acceptable for individuals to place
personal goals ahead of the groups goals.
c. Culture Shock
Culture shock is an initial adjustment to an unfamiliar environment in which the psychological process of culture shock has been used to describe the adjustment
process on its emotional, psychological, behavioral, psychological impacts on individual Pedersen, 1995, p. 2. On the other hand, Church 1982 states that
culture shock is the feeling of being anxious, helpless, irritable, and in general, homesick that one experiences on moving to a new culture as cited in Heine, 2008,
p. 514. Furthermore, culture shock happens when an individual starts adjusting to an unfamiliar environment. The process of adjusting to the new culture has
psychological impacts such being anxious, helpless, irritable, and homesick. Those symptoms
will not exist through individual’s life unless the individual has a strategy in acculturation process. Heine 2008 states that one of the best predictors of
acculturative success is language ability p. 521. People need to master the language of the host country in order to get successful in acculturative. According
to Heine 2008 there are other skills that need to be mastered in addition to learning a new language when one moves to new culture for example: people have to
accomplish daily tasks such as making friends.
