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himself but also to the others whose objection he has voiced. The last purpose is to retain speakers prestige”.
The method a speaker will use in answering questions or objections must depend upon the real reasons of those who raise them. A speaker will answer the
mere troublemaker in way different from that in which he will answer one who is sincerely interested.
2.1.5 Speech Execution
Speaking is a complicated process to analyze. Historically, the study of speaking has confronted investigators with very tough problems. This occurs because
it is difficult to exert control over what people say. It has been difficult to conduct experiments to study it. Before delivering speech, there are divisions that speakers
generally take before executing their speech. Here are some processes of how speech is planned and executed as proposed by Clark and Clark 1977: 224 :
1. Discourse Plans.
The first step for the speakers is to decide what kind of discourse they are participating in. It is the case that they are telling a story, conversing with other
people, giving instructions, describing an event, or making a pledge. Each kind of discourse has a different structure, and they must plan their utterances to fit. Each
utterance must contribute to the discourse by conveying the correct messages. 2.
Sentence Plans. Given the discourse and their intention to produce a sentence with the correct
message, speaker must select one that will do this. They must secede on the speech act, what to put as subject, and given new information, and what to subordinate.
They must also decide how they want to convey their messages directly, by means of
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the literal meaning of a sentence, or directly, by means irony, understatement, or other indirect rhetorical devices.
3. Constituent Plans.
Once the speakers decide on the global characteristics of a sentence, they can begin planning its constituent and put them in the right order. Although they may
have planned the global form of sentence, they normally select specific words only phrase by phrase.
4. Articulatory Program.
As specific words are chosen, they are formed into an articulatory program in a memory buffer capable on holding all the words of plans constituent at once. It
contains a representation of the actual phonetic segments, stresses, and intonation pattern that are to be executed at the next step.
5. Articulation.
This final step is to execute the contents of the articulatory program. This is done by mechanism that adds sequence and timing to the articulory program, telling
the articulatory program, telling the articulatory muscles what they should do them. This step results in audible sounds, the speech the speaker intended to produce.
Sources of planning difficulty Nisa , 2009: 29 : 1.
Cognitive Difficulty Cognitive difficulty might be presumed as the first source of speech planning
difficulty. In this occasion, it took people longer to produce the first words of the sentence for an abstract than for a concrete topic. Some of the topics, which are
concrete objects, look much easier to be executed than those, which are abstract concepts. Words like car, house and so on are easier to be explained than sorrow, joy,
pain, etc. in which those words are categorized as abstract concepts. It is quite hard
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to explain those things because it will of course take longer time to pick appropriate words to express the objects that are going to be explained. There are more
hesitations scattered through the explanations than through the description, presumably because it was harder to come with the explanations and right words to
express them. If these suggestions are correct, topics those are talked about affect to levels of planning. They delay the planning of sentence skeleton and they delay the
selecting of words to each constituent of the skeleton. 2.
Situational Anxiety A second source of speech errors is situational anxiety. This happens because
of a certain situation that makes a speaker becomes tense, anxious orworry about it. Then, they try to produce hesitation in speaking. The anxiety breaks up the planning
and execution that become less efficient. For example, the police will be difficult to get the actual information from somebody who has just been robbed in the market,
because he is still anxious and shocked by what has happened to him. He tends to produce hesitations and some speech errors in describing and explaining the situation
at that time. When people talk about topics they are anxious about, they tend to produce
more hesitations in their speaking. According to Volvariaty 2011: 17, one possibility is that anxiety disrupts the planning and execution processes generally.
Speakers become tense and their planning and execution become less efficient. Another possibility is that what people talk about when they are anxious is simply
more difficult cognitively. It may be very difficult to verbalize the abstract anxiety states they want to express, and so they spend more time planning, groping for just
the right words. Under this alternative the anxiety pause have the same source as the
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pause of any other cognitively difficult talk. It is safest to assume that situational anxiety affects planning and execution both of these ways.
3. Social Factors
The next source of speech planning difficulty is social reasons. Most people do the communication in conversation or spoken form rather than the other forms of
communication because listener can grasp the words or messages from the speakers hesitate too long, the speaker will take over the conversation. So the speakers should
make clear what they want to convey from the beginning to the end without any speech error.
The last source of speech planning difficulty is social circumference. Under the press of a conversation, speakers must make a clear speech when they still have
something to say and when they are finished. If they hesitate too long at any point, someone else may take over the conversation. In this way, the speakers should make
clear when they want to convey from the beginning to the end without any hesitation. The very same planning difficulty may result in different pattern of speech
errors. One person may plan all of constituent before starting it, another may plan it after the first word, and a third may forge ahead, make a mistake and then return to
repair the mistake. Although they all strive for the ideal delivery, how they try to achieve it varies from person to person.
2.1.6 Ideal Delivery
