Review of Related Theories

sentences and complex sentences. She also concludes that the advertiser applied language intensity, powerful language, language and imagery, and rhetorical figures to attract consumer to but the product. Although this study uses the same approach which are stylistics and persuasive language, this study has different object of study which is a magazine. From the study of Kusumawardhani, this study can learn about the language styles that also have persuasive effect to the readers. This study aims to improve the analysis of those studies above by using the analysis of lexical and syntactic features in Vogue magazine, especially on the View column. Thereafter, the result of the analysis of language features from the magazine will be used to discover how language features on the View column in Vogue magazine are exploited for persuasive purposes.

B. Review of Related Theories

In this part, the writer uses several theories which related to the problem formulation to analyze the study. The writer uses theories of stylistics and persuasion. Both theories are described below. 1. Stylistics Language used in a magazine is very various. It is not only used to give the information about the content to the reader but also it is also used to attract and affect the readers. It uses combination and exploration of several interesting words to represent the products. Thereupon, it can be said that a magazine used its own distinctive features. In order to analyze the features, stylistics analysis is needed. Verdonk in his book defined stylistics as the analysis of distinctive expression in language and the description of its purposes and effect 2002:4. It means style is a typical manner of expression that uses various levels of language to express an idea. A style includes how analysis and description should be conducted and established. In one way or another, styles in language make reference to a distinctive manner of expression, through whatever medium this expression is given physical shape Verdonk, 2002:3. It can be found in particular literary genres or in the works of individual writers. Stylistics can create various styles in language that brings certain meaning to the reader. It also can create understanding of literature, linguistics, and journalism. Paul Simpson in his book says that stylistics is a method of textual interpretation in which primacy of place is assigned on language 2004:2. He also states that the reason why language is so important to stylistics is because the various forms, patterns and levels that constitute linguistic structure are an important index of the function of the text 2004:2. Stylistics also has its own distinctive feature. It can be used as an expression or hidden message of languages. It enriches readers’ ways of thinking about language and also explores the language on readers understanding of texts. To work under stylistics approach is to explore creativity in language use Simpson, 2004:3. In other word, stylistics is not limited to certain area. It explores human’s mind to PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI elaborate language and creativity in any purposes. Thus, in order to identify and organize the stylistics analysis of the text, a table of categories, major levels of language, and their related technical term is attached. Table 1. Stylistics and level of language Simpson, 2004:5 LEVEL OF LANGUAGE BRANCH OF THE LANGUAGE STUDY The sound of spoken language; the way words are pronounced. Phonology; phonetics The patterns of written language; the shape of language on page. Graphology The way words are constructed; words and their constituent structures. Morphology The way words combine with other words to form phrases and sentences. Syntax; grammar The words we use; the vocabulary of language. Lexical analysis; lexicology The meaning of words and sentences. Semantics The way words and sentences are used in everyday situations; the meaning of the language in context. Pragmatics; discourse analysis Based on the table provided above, there are several linguistic features on stylistics. However in approaching the analysis, this study only uses several language aspects. The first aspect is lexis. Lexis is a study on linguistic that deals about all the words in language that has meaning and grammatical function. Lexical features that are used for this analysis are proper noun, fashion terminology, and metaphor. The second aspect is syntax. Syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing phrases and sentences in language. It focuses on word order PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI of a language and the relationship between words. Syntax features that are used for this study are simple sentence and complex sentence. From those aspects above, it can be concluded that this study only focuses on vocabulary and grammatical structures of the texts. a. Lexical Features Lexis is the whole of vocabulary items in a language, including all forms having lexical meaning or grammatical function. Lexis is used as a general technical term for vocabulary or diction. It is linked with grammar as a component of language. According to Wales, lexis is the most important means that people have in order to express the idea and experience 2001:234. Therefore, in order to give the reader the idea or argument of articles, lexical features are needed. Wales also states that words having similar collocation ranges and recurring in similar contexts are said to belong to the same lexical set. 2001:234. Therefore, in the lexical features, the words have the same ranges and contexts. i. Proper Noun Ehrlich says that “proper nouns and adjectives are capitalized” 1977:115. A proper noun designates the names of a specific person, place, or thing, for examples, names of people, geographical locations, months, days of the week, holidays, astronomical names, organizations, buildings, magazines, or brand names. The function of capitals is to focus attention on particular elements within any group of people, places, or things. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI ii. Fashion Terminology According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary sixth edition, fashion is “a popular style of clothes, hair, etc at a particular time or place.” 2000:481. It is also the prevailing type of clothing that is favored by a large segment of the public at any given time. The word ‘term’ means a word or phrase used as the name of something especially one connected with a particular type of language. 2000:1394 Therefore, a fashion term is the words that used with particular fashion style. It provides definitions of fashion vocabulary like clothing construction terms, apparel definitions, clothing detail terminology, fashion design jargon and other terms as they relate to the fashion industry. Fashion terms help people to understand the articles in the taste of fashion. iii. Metaphor According to Perrine, metaphor is comparing between things essentially unlike from one to another Perrine, 1969:65. It is a figurative comparison that dropped out the words like and as and the primary and secondary terms are joined together. Damon, Espey, and Mulhauser, 1967:78. There are three criteria to recognize metaphors in a text: when taken literally 1 meaningless, 2 obviously false, or 3 trivial Carlshamre, 1988:8. Therefore, a metaphor cannot be taken literally or it will lost its meaning and be completely false. b. Syntactic Features Syntax or usually is known as grammatical features is the set of rules, principles, and processes that manage the structure of sentences in a given language, specifically word order. Paul Simpson says that most theories of grammar accept that grammatical units are ordered hierarchically according to their size. This hierarchy is known as a rank scale 2004:10. Sentence or clause complex  Clause  Phrase or group  Word  Morpheme According to the rank above, the smallest unit of grammar is morpheme. Simpson states that the most important unit on the scale is the clause because it is site of several important function in language; it provides tense; it distinguishes between positive or negative; it provides the core or nub of a preposition in language; and it is where information about grammatical mood about whether a clause is declarative, interrogative, or imperative is situated. 2004:10. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI i. Simple Sentence A simple sentence is a sentence with just a main clause Wales, 2001:356. It only contains one independent clause. An independent clause is a group of words with a subject or a verb that states a complete thought. It only requires one punctuation mark at the end such as a full stop, exclamation, or question mark. ii. Complex Sentence A complex sentence is a sentence that has a main clause and one or more adverbial clauses. A complex sentence contains more than one clause in a sentence Wales, 2001:356. It contains a dependent clause and an independent clause. When the dependent clause comes first, it is separated with a comma. When the sentence begins with the independent clause, there is no need to separate the clauses with a comma. 2. Theory of Persuasion Persuasion is a change process resulting mostly from shared, symbolic thinking activity. It is concerned with social influence and human motivation Ross, 1994:7. It can be said that persuasion is a technique used to present ideas through reason, logic, arguments, or actions to influence the audience. According to Borchers, “persuasion is the coproduction of meaning that results when an individual or a group of individuals uses language strategies and other symbols to make audiences identify with that individual or group” 2005:17. The data of this study is printed media, a magazine. In a magazine, the text producers use “an array of linguistic tool in order to attract reader’s attention” McLoughlin, 2000:21. One of the linguistic tool that is found in the magazine is the styles of language. “Style or the manner in which ideas are communicate, is important to the persuasive effect of communication” Borchers, 2005:39. The use of persuasive theory provides this study a historical view from which it can understand how persuasive message have been constructed. Therefore, the persuasive technique can be found in the magazine. Media are very powerful in shaping people responses because it provides a constant source of information about who we are and how we should act. Media persuade us by creating knowledge about products and people and their place in our culture. The articles of Vogue magazine that are used as the data discuss about fashion products. It is in agreement with Borchers that entertainment media also commodify the products services or ideas of persuaders as well. Borchers also adds, “By featuring their products or services in specific entertainment media, persuaders can make audience members aware of the product or service and make it seem valuable” 2005:127. That’s why entertainment media can shape our ideas about ourselves or our world easily. When the words are used strategically, it refers to the stylistic and structural choices that persuaders consider to use in persuasive message. According to Timothy A. Borchers there are five aspects use by persuaders. a. Language intensity According to Hamilton Hunter in Borchers book, language intensity refers to the degree of affect reflected in the persuaders language, ranging from mild to intense Borchers, 2005:187. Language intensity does not benefit all persuaders equally. It influences attitude change only for discrepant messages delivered by credible sources. When hearing a message contrary to their beliefs, audiences who are not ego-involved in a topic will be influenced by language intensity if the source is reliable Borchers, 2005:188. b. Powerful language Powerful language is a way to use language strategically by using strong message to influence people. According to Borchers, powerful language do not use empty adjectives, they make strong statements instead of using questions, they do not use polite forms and they use hedges less frequently than do powerless persuaders 2005:188. The detail about the absence of those features is listed below: i. Empty adjectives, such as “cute,” “sweet,” and “divine” Burrell and Koper, 1998 ii. Question forms or the use of questions – such as “right?” – at the end of statements. iii. Polite forms or the use of “please” and “thank you.” iv. Hedges, which modify the previous statement. Examples include “I guess,” “I think,” “kinda,” and “you know.” Borchers, 2005:188 Some studies state that powerless language does not affect persuasiveness but others indicate that powerful language may inhibit a persuader’s effectiveness. To understand about the statement, Nancy A Burrell and Randal J. Koper conduct a meta-analysis of previous study that powerful language is not only more persuasive but also more credible than powerless language Borchers, 2005:188. c. Language and imagery According to Jew Peterson 1995 in Borchers’ book, visual imagery penetrates our consciousness and reaches us at an emotional level. Visual language makes use of vivid descriptions of events, objects, and people. Borchers, 2005:189. JewPeterson suggest a four-step approach to develop a visual strategy. First, persuaders identify a powerful and visualize theme. Second, persuaders support them with comparisons to other testimony and facts. Third, audiences use their own life experiences to analyze what they have heard. Fourth, audiences make decision based on the analysis. Persuaders can also harness the power of images with their words by creating pictures for their audiences Borchers, 2005:189. d. Rhetorical figures There are some particular ways of using language to maximize its persuasive effects. Persuaders choose the right words and arrange them to have the maximum effect on the audience. Besides, some aspects of speaking style are also considered to create the effect on the audiences. The details are listed below: i. Parallelism is the repeated use of similar words, phrases, or sentences in the same position in a grammatical construction. It creates a sense of rhythm that invites the audience to listen and remember what is being heard or read. ii. Alliteration is using words that start with the same first letter in close proximity to each other. iii. Antithesis is the use of contrasting ideas in the same sentence. iv. Repetition involves restating a key word or phrase to reinforce the point being made. Borchers, 2005:189 e. Metaphor Metaphor is a way of comparing things that are apparently different yet have something in common. It is persuasive because it helps the audience see the association between something new and something they already know. Metaphor helps audiences to escape their previous way of seeing by looking at something from a different angle Borchers, 2005:190. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI Sopory and Dillard 2002 in Borcher’s book said that “metaphors lead to greater attitude change than literal language and that metaphor use enhances the credibility of the persuaders.” One aspect of credibility is the dynamism of the persuaders, which refers to the assertiveness or energy of the persuaders Borchers, 2005:190. However, the metaphor that is used could not be adapted to change the situation. Therefore, metaphor must be chosen and used carefully.

C. Theoretical Framework