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CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Based on the objective of this study mentioned in Chapter I, that is to develop English speaking materials for English Tutorial Program of intermediate
level students of International Accounting Education study program, this chapter deals with theories
related to terms and issues engaged within the researcher’s conceptual framework.
A. Literature Review
1. Speaking
a. The Definition of Speaking
Speaking is one of the two productive skills. There are many definitions of speaking that have been proposed by some experts in
language teaching. Brown 2001: 267 states that when someone can speak a
language it means that he can carry on a conversation reasonably competently. Richards and Renandya 2002: 204 state that effective
oral communication requires the ability to use the language appropriately in social interactions that involves not only verbal
communication but also paralinguistic elements of speech such as pitch, stress, and intonation. Moreover, nonlinguistic elements such as
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gestures, body language, and expressions are needed in conveying messages directly without any accompanying speech.
According to Hornby 1995:826, speaking is making use of words in an ordinary voice, offering words, knowing and being able to
use a language expressing one-self in words, and making speech. Therefore, the writer infers that speaking uses the word and produces
the sound to express ourselves either ideas, feeling, thought and needs orally in an ordinary voice.
From some definitions mentioned above, it can be concluded that speaking skill is always related to communication. Speaking can be
stated as the skill to use the language to express meanings in order to transfer knowledge and information or carry out a conversation in a
certain situation.
b. Types of Classroom Speaking Performance
There are six categories of oral production that are expected from learners in the classroom. They are imitative, intensive,
responsive, transactional, interpersonal, and extensive Brown, 2001: 271. The explanation for each of the categories is described in the
following paragraphs. The first type is imitative. Students copy how to pronounce a
certain element of language form of the teacher or the tape recorder.
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This type of activity is not focusing on the meaning, but on particular elements of the language, such as intonation and stress.
The second classroom speaking performance type is intensive. In this type, students can practice both phonological and grammatical
form of language that can be done alone or in pairs, where they have to put a lot of effort to study a certain form of the language.
The next type is responsive. In this type of performance, the student gives a short reply to the comments or questions from the
teacher or the other students. In the transactional dialogue, students have a dialogue to
express or exchange specific information. While in the interpersonal dialogue, students have a dialogue to maintain social relationships.
The last type is extensive monologue. In this type, students perform oral monologue in the form of speeches, summaries, or reports.
The monologues can be planned or impromptu. It can be summarized that according to Brown, there are seven
types of classroom speaking performances i.e. imitative, drilling, intensive, responsive, transactional dialogue, interpersonal dialogue,
and extensive monologue. The speaking performances are those that the students are expected to carry out in the classroom. The students
need to know at least the pronunciation, vocabularies, and language functions that they are going to use. When the students have been ready
and prepared for the activity, they can use the language appropriately.
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c. Classroom Speaking Activities
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