STUDENTS’ CONCEPTIONS OF LEARNING

STUDENTS’ CONCEPTIONS OF LEARNING

There is a considerable body of research that has reported on students’ conceptions of learning (see for example, Marton et al., 1993; Marton & Tsui, 2004; Pramling, 1983; Säljö, 1979). Studies on conceptions of learning began in the 1970s in Sweden and a majority of these earlier studies was carried out amongst university students or adult learners (Marton et al., 1993; Säljö, 1979). In phenomenography,

a conception represents ‘a particular way of viewing, thinking about and interpreting an aspect of the world’ (Ballantyne, Thompson & Taylor, 1994, p. 27).

Eklund ‐Myrskog (1998) described a conception as the ‘fundamental way a person understands phenomenon or an object in the surrounding world … a qualitative relationship between an individual and some phenomenon’ (p. 3). As such, the term conception is used to describe ways of experiencing a phenomenon. In this thesis, the term conception and ways of experiencing are used interchangeably. However, not all studies on students’ conceptions of learning use phenomenography as a research approach and some have used a non‐ phenomenographic notion of conception. It is important to note that the term conception has a meaning unique to phenomenography and, in this study, the term conception is defined within the limits of phenomenographic research; it represents an internal relationship between an individual and an aspect of his or her world. A discussion on the definition of conception in relation to its use in the current study is presented in more detail in Chapter 3. For clarity, phenomenographic studies are reviewed first followed by non‐phenomenographic studies. Both use the term conceptions.

Phenomenographic research posits that, in order to understand the phenomenon of learning, there is a need to start with the learners’ experiences rather than with the content or outcome of learning (Kelly, 2000; Pandey & Zimitat, 2005). This notion underpins the Brunei study.

Phenomenographical studies of learning

One of the earliest influential studies of learning conceptions was carried out by Säljö (1979) in Sweden. Using phenomenography, Säljö interviewed 90 participants between the ages of 15 and 73 years about their learning experiences. He identified five conceptions of learning and these conceptions were:

1. The increase of knowledge

2. Memorising

3. Acquisition of facts, procedures etc, which can be retained and / or utilised in practice

4. Abstraction of meaning

5. An interpretative process aimed at the understanding of reality

Learning as the increase of knowledge represents a quantitative increase, in which students focused on accumulating what they had learnt. Memorising refers to rote learning in which the students focused on memorising what they had learnt. The third conception focused on the application of facts and procedures that had been acquired. Learning as the abstraction of meanings refers to understanding what something means, and finally, learning as an interpretative process aimed at understanding reality refers to the students’ ability in relating what they had learnt to the real world. For example, understanding why things happen in such a way in the world.

Säljö’s (1979) study has been used as the basis for other studies in a range of contexts and with different age groups. Marton, Dall’Alba and Beaty (1993) investigated conceptions of learning held by a group of Open University students in the UK. They found six conceptions of learning, which closely reflect the first five of Säljö’s findings in the 1970s. The difference between Säljö’s and Marton et al.’s findings is that the latter reflect ‘a more precise characterisation of the differing conceptions of learning’ (Marton et al., 1993, pp. 82‐83). In so doing, Marton et al. (1993) identified a sixth conception of learning. The sixth conception denotes learning as changing as a person (Marton et al., 1993, p. 96). In the sixth conception, learning was experienced by the students as seeing the world differently and this indicated change as a person. In addition, Marton et al. (1993) were able to identify an hierarchical relationship between each conception of learning. An hierarchical arrangement means that the succeeding conception is inclusive of the preceding ones (Marton & Booth, 1997). These conceptions of learning were:

1. Learning as increasing one’s knowledge

2. Learning as memorising and reproducing

3. Learning as applying

4. Learning as understanding

5. Learning as seeing something in a different way

6. Learning as changing as a person

While the first five conceptions reflect the conceptions found by Säljö, Marton et al. (1993) had used slightly different labels to describe each conception means.

Each of the conceptions of learning described by Marton et al. (1993) will now be discussed in terms of broader quantitative and qualitative conceptions identified in the literature. The first three conceptions are identified as quantitative while the last three are described as qualitative conceptions of learning (Biggs, 1993; Marton et al., 1993).

Quantitative conceptions of learning

Quantitative conceptions of learning, which include learning as increasing one’s knowledge, learning as memorising and learning as applying (Marton & Booth, 1997), refer to the process of aggregating information or content. The UK students who held these conceptions of learning were found to be less concerned with developing a deeper understanding of what they had learned (Marton et al., 1993). They were more focused on gaining more information, facts and knowledge. For example, the conception of learning as increasing one’s knowledge implies that the students focused on learning new things (Marton et al., 1993; Säljö, 1979). The students aimed to gain more information and increase the amount of knowledge that they already had. In addition, when describing learning as memorising, the students focused on recalling or reproducing the information that they had gained and, in the last quantitative conception of learning, that is, learning as applying, the students focused on applying the information that they had gained and stored, without necessarily understanding what the application entailed.

In his review, Biggs (1993) noted that, students holding quantitative conceptions of learning regard a good student as ‘someone who knows more than other people’ (p. 20). These conceptions relate closely to the traditional perspective of education, in which teachers transmit information and students are drilled in the basic skills to get them learn as much as they can (Biggs, 1993). Learning, in this respect, does not go beyond reproducing knowledge. Rather, it is a process in which students aggregate and accumulate information. There is a marked difference between students who perceive learning as a process of storing and reproducing information (quantitative conceptions), and those who are more concerned with grasping the meanings of a particular content and so transforming the material presented (qualitative conceptions) (Entwistle, 1998).

Qualitative conceptions of learning

Qualitative conceptions of learning emphasise understanding and seeking meaning in the process of learning and include the final three conceptions of learning, which are: learning as understanding, seeing something in a different way and changing as

a person (Marton & Booth, 1997). These conceptions suggest learning is not just the act of accumulating knowledge. Rather, knowledge is transformed into new meanings where learning is aimed at deeper understanding (Ramsden, 1992). Tynjälä (1997) referred to these as transformative conceptions.

Learning as understanding according to phenomenographers such as Marton et al. (1993) and educational psychologists such as Watkins (1996) and Biggs (1996, 2000) marks the transition from quantitative to qualitative conceptions. The latter is perceived as more desirable than the former because qualitative conceptions indicate the construction of new meanings from what students have learnt. In other words, the information that students have gained, memorised and applied is transformed into new meanings based on previous experience and knowledge. Learning is, therefore, experienced as a process in which the students examine information critically in order to seek new meanings (Marton & Booth, 1997). A summary of the quantitative and qualitative conceptions of learning is outlined in Table 2 (adapted from Marton & Booth, 1997, p. 38).

Table 2: Six conceptions of learning

A Learning as increasing one’s knowledge

B Learning as memorising and reproducing Quantitative

C Learning as applying

D Learning as understanding

E Learning as seeing something in a different way Qualitative

F Learning as changing as a person

In a different phenomenographic study, Vermunt (1996) identified five conceptions of learning styles and strategies. These included:

1. The intake of knowledge

2. Construction of knowledge

3. Use of knowledge

4. Stimulating education

5. Cooperative learning

Vermunt’s (1996) first three conceptions are similar to those found by Säljö (1979), Marton et al. (1993), and Marton, Watkins and Tang (1997) (see Table 3). The intake of knowledge, for example, corresponds to the acquiring phase in the temporal dimension of learning outlined by Marton et al. (1995). Vermunt’s (1996) last two conceptions of learning, however, hold general meanings of learning that may be broken down into sub‐conceptions. Stimulating education and cooperative learning are two phenomena that could be studied separately from learning per se.

Non ‐phenomenographical studies

Non ‐phenomenographic studies investigating students’ conceptions of learning have used other research methods to analyse conceptions of learning. Researchers using other methodologies have found conceptions of learning held by university students in the 1990s in addition to the conceptions of learning identified by Säljö (1979), Marton et al. (1993) and Vermunt (1996). The findings of studies carried out by Tynjälä (1997), and Purdie (1994) are now discussed.

In a non‐phenomenographic study, Tynjälä (1997) found another set of similar learning conceptions held by university students. The study used 62 essays on My

Conceptions of Learning written by first year students who undertook education courses in two different learning environments. The students were divided into an experimental group and a control group. The former was placed in a ‘constructive’ learning environment and the latter in a ‘traditional’ learning environment (Tynjälä, 1997, p. 282). Based on student essays, the following conceptions of learning were elicited and are summarised in Table 3.

1. Learning as an externally determined event / process

2. Learning as a developmental process

3. Learning as student activity

4. Learning as strategies / styles / approaches

5. Learning as information processing

6. Learning as an interactive process

7. Learning as a creative process

Tynjälä’s (1997) investigation focused on students’ conceptions of ‘how learning takes place and what the learning process is like’ (p. 278). The focus on process differentiates Tynjälä’s study from Purdie’s (1994) non‐phenomenographic studies to investigate students’ conceptions of learning. Hence, all of the learning conceptions found in Tynjälä’s study (1997) reflect learning as a process rather than learning as an overall experience. The current study focuses on learning as an overall experience that is not limited to a process or a product.

Purdie (1994) investigated learning with secondary school students. These are presented in Table 3. Purdie (1994) identified nine levels of learning conceptions held by Australian and Japanese secondary school students, six of which are similar to those identified by Säljö (1979) and Marton et al. (1993) (see Table 3). Purdie’s (1994) interpretations of the six learning conceptions, however, varied slightly. For example, Purdie (1994) added studying as a third learning conception, which was learning as memorising and reproducing in Marton et al.’s (1993) study. In Purdie’s (1994) study, students linked the processes of memorising and reproducing to that of studying. Many students stated learning is studying when asked to describe what studying means to them and there were others who noted that the act of studying was inseparable from learning and memorising. In addition to the six conceptions of learning, Purdie (1994) found three additional conceptions of learning:

1. Learning as a duty

2. Learning as a process not bound by time or context

3. Learning as developing social competence

Learning, as a duty reflects, the students’ belief that learning is a responsibility borne of their obligations to the community and society at large (Purdie, 1994). In this way, learning encompasses all aspects of one’s life and not limited to a certain context. The students in Purdie’s (1994) study also noted that learning enabled them to interact intellectually with other members of the society. The three additional conceptions of learning identified by Purdie (1994), however, connote Learning, as a duty reflects, the students’ belief that learning is a responsibility borne of their obligations to the community and society at large (Purdie, 1994). In this way, learning encompasses all aspects of one’s life and not limited to a certain context. The students in Purdie’s (1994) study also noted that learning enabled them to interact intellectually with other members of the society. The three additional conceptions of learning identified by Purdie (1994), however, connote

Table 3: Comparison of phenomenographic and non‐phenomenographic studies

Phenomenographic Non ‐phenomenographic Säljö (1979)

Marton, Purdie (1994) Tynjälä (1997) Dall’Alba and

Marton, Vermunt (1996)

Watkins and

Beaty (1993)

Tang (1997)

The increase Learning as

Learning as Learning as an of knowledge

The intake of

Learning as

increasing knowledge committing to

increasing one’s externally one’s memory knowledge determined

(words) event / process knowledge Learning as Acquisition of

Memorising knowledge Construction of

Learning as

Learning as

memorising, Learning as a

facts, memorising Use of

committing to

reproducing and developmental procedures and knowledge memory studying process

etc, which can

reproducing (meaning)

be retained Stimulating Learning as using Learning as and / or

knowledge for a student activity utilised in

Learning as

education Learning as

applying understanding variety of

practice Cooperative (meaning) purposes Learning as Learning as

learning strategies / Abstraction of

understanding Learning as

Learning as styles / meaning understanding understanding approaches

Learning as

(phenomenon)

An seeing Learning as Learning as interpretative something in

seeing something information process aimed a different

in a different way processing at the

way understanding Learning as

Learning as an of reality

Learning as personal interactive changing as a

fulfilment process person

Learning as a Learning as a duty creative process

Learning as a process not bound by time or context

Learning as developing social competence

Phenomenographic and non‐phenomenographic studies on students’ conceptions of learning have generally found similar findings. For example, as shown in Table 3, learning conceptions such as learning as increasing one’s knowledge, learning as memorising and learning as understanding were found in Säljö’s (1979), Marton et al.’s (1993) and Purdie’s (1994) studies. In a later study, Marton, Watkins and Tang (1997) found several dimensions of learning as memorising and learning as Phenomenographic and non‐phenomenographic studies on students’ conceptions of learning have generally found similar findings. For example, as shown in Table 3, learning conceptions such as learning as increasing one’s knowledge, learning as memorising and learning as understanding were found in Säljö’s (1979), Marton et al.’s (1993) and Purdie’s (1994) studies. In a later study, Marton, Watkins and Tang (1997) found several dimensions of learning as memorising and learning as