The Goals of Semantics Theory Relevance Study In additional of review of literature, there have been some analyses that

in some forms of language. For example, the word run “I like to run” means, “Walk fast” and in “They run a mail order house” means, “to manage”. Although we are supposed not to make words means what they do not mean, we sometimes mean words mean what they do not mean, we sometimes mean somethimg different from what our word mean linguistically. On the other words, we speak nonliterally. Thus if we are speaking nonliterally, then we will mean something different from what our words mean. If we are speaking literally, then we mean what our words mean.

2.3 The Goals of Semantics Theory

There are two questions about the goals of Semantics theory. The first question is what should a Semantics theory do and how should it do it? The answer to the first question is that a Semantics theory should attribute to each expression in the language and the semantic relation it has should define those relations. Thus, if an expression is synonymous or entails the other, the semantic theory should make those semantic relations. The second question is that a semantic theory should have at least two kinds of constrains: 1. A Semantics theory should attribute to each expression in the language the semantic properties and relations. 2. A Semantics theory should define those proprties and relations, i.e. at least two kinds of constrains: Universitas Sumatera Utara a. A Semantics theory of natural language should be finite. People are capable of storing only a finite amount of information but they learn the semantics of natural language. b. A Semantics theory of natural language should reflect the facts except for idioms expressions are compositional. This means that meaning of syntactically complex expression is determined by the meaning of its constituents and their grammatical relations.

2.4 Meaning Relations in English

Meaning relations is also called sense or semantics relations. It is the realtionships of meaning or sense that may be set up between two individual and groups of lexical items. Semantic or meaning relations have six terms that will be discussed in this thesis. They are synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, homonymy, hyponymy, and meronymy.

2.4.1 Synonymy

The term synonymy is derived from Greek word synonymy syn which means with together and onyma means name. So, synonymy means name together. Two words or more together name the same object, action, event or quality. Synonymy are words from the same language and grammatical category, which have similar or almost similar meaning but different spelling, sound, connotation, or application. It is identical in sense to another word or has the same Universitas Sumatera Utara or nearly the same general sense as another word but it is perhaps use in different context. Examples of synonyms are the pairs: 1. kingly = royal 2. world = universe 3. buy = purchase 4. brotherly = fraternal 5. almost = nearly Nevertheless, it has been aid as well to remember that no two words ever have exactly the same meaning no perfect synonym. Two words might be synoymous in one sentence but different in another. It seems to be very little if any differences between the expressions. Both of the following expressions have difference to be considered. For examples: a. Marry is sitting in the sofa b. Marry is sitting in the couch Some individuals may always use sofa and couch, but if they know the two words, they will understand the sentences with either word and interpret them to mean the same thing. The degree of semantic similarity between words depends on great extent on the number of semantic properties they share. Sofa and couch refer to the same type of object and share most, if not all, their semantic properties. Universitas Sumatera Utara

2.4.2 Antonymy

Antonymy are words or expressions which are opposite in meaning. Or two forms with opposite meaning. They can share an aspect of meaning but opposite or incompatible in some other aspect of meaning. There are three kinds of antonyms, they are:

1. Complementary Pairs

It means the items complementary to each other. The items belong to the set of incompatible terms. We can also say that the negative of one word is synonymous with the other. For example: male X female and clean X dirty are complementary pairs. If not male = female and if not female = male and also if not clean = dirty, if not dirty = clean. Complementary pairs are predicates which come in pairs and between them exhaust all the relevant possibilities. If the one predicates is applicable, then the other can not be and vice versa. For instance, the words married and single. These two words cannot be used to refer the same individual at the same time. There is only one possibility of the fact, such as in the sentence Peter is married or Peter is single. If married is application, then single is not, and vise versa. It means, to say Peter is married is to say that He is not single. So, to say something is Not the one is to say that is the other.

2. Gradable Pairs

It means the pairs of words have gradation of width, age, size, etc. All are indicated by the adjectives. For examples: old X new and hard X soft are gradable pairs. If we say not old, it is not necessarily equal with new because when Universitas Sumatera Utara someone is not old, it doesn’t mean he is new. Gradable pairs also means the negative of one word is not synonymous with the other. Gradable pairs can be graded into comparative and superlative degrees by adding the word more or most and inflection -er or –es to which are being compared. For example, the word big is the opposite of word small. The word big can be graded into comparative degree bigger or superlative degree biggest, and the word small can be garded into comparative degree smaller or superlative degree smallest. It is also true of gradable pairs that more of one is less of another. For example: longer is less short, , wider is less narrow, and more bigness is less smaller. There are two characteristics of gradable pairs, they are marked term and unmarked term. Marked term means that the term is not so used by the speaker. In contrary, unmarked term means that the term of the pairs is commonly used by people in speaking of their language. For example, the expression How high is it? or How wide is it? are commonly used than How low is it? or How narrow is it?.

3. Relational Opposite

Relational opposites is a quite different kind of ‘opposite’ found with pairs of words which exhibit the reversal of relationship between items Palmer, 1976:81. It means we can find the relationship between the opposite pairs of words or two-way contrast where one number presupposes the other, symetry, transitivity, and reflexivity are the characteristics of relation. Universitas Sumatera Utara Relational opposite comes from verbs: buysell, lendborrow, rentlet, ownbelong to, and giverecieve. There are also nouns: husbandwife, fiancefiancee, parentchild, debtorcreditor, and teacherpupi; in a number of terms referring to spatial position: abovebelow, infront ofbehind, north ofsouth of; and in grammar too, active and passive such as: if Tom hits Harry, Harry is hit by Tom. It is clear that if A gives Y to B, then B receives Y from A ; if A is B’s teacher, then B is A’s pupil. Pairs of words ending in –er and –ee are usually relational opposite. For instance, if Ann is Bob’s emlpoyer, then Bob is Ann’s employee. Other forms to form antonyms are by adding the prefix un-, prefix non-, prefix in- before the word. For examples: equal X unequal important X unimportant fiction X nonfiction stop X nonstop direct X indirect capable X incapable

2.4.3 Polysemy The term Polysemy is derived from Greek word poly means many and

sema means sign or mark. So, the sameness of meaning is not very easy to deal with but there seems nothing inherently difficult about the difference of meaning. Not only do different words have different meanings; it is also the case that the same word may have a set of different meanings. This is polysemy; such a word is Universitas Sumatera Utara polysemic. Thus the dictionary will define the word flight in at least the following ways: passing through the air, power of flying, air journey, and unit of the Air Force. Yet there are problems even with this apparently simple concept. And other example the noun head, for instance, seems to have related meaning when speak of the head of a person, the head of a company, head of a table of bad, and head of lettuce or cabbage. If we take the anatomical reference as the basic one, either reflecting the general shape of the human head or, more abstractly, the relation of the head to the rest of the body. First, we cannot clearly distinguish whether two meanings ate the same or different and therefore, determine exactly how many meanings a word has. For a meaning is not easily delimited and so distinguished from other meanings. Consider the verb eat. The dictionary distinguishes the ‘literal’ sense of taking food and derived meanings of ‘use up’ and ‘corrode’ and we should, perhaps treat these as three different meanings. But we can also distinguish between eating meat and eating soup, the former with a knife and fork and the letter with a spoon. Morever, we talk about dringking soup as well as eating it. Secondly, we may ask whether we can make any general remarks about differences of meaning. Are regular types of difference found in the meaning of various words? One of the most familiar kinds of relationship between meanings. Thirdly, there is the problem that if one form has several meanings, it is not always clear whether we shall say that this is an examples of polysemy that there is one word with several meanings or of Homonymy that there are several words with the same shape. Universitas Sumatera Utara According to Palmer 1976:68 ” The problem, however, is to decide when we have polysemy and when we have homonymy. Given that we have a written form with two meanings, do are we say that it is one word with different meaning polysemy or two different words with the same shapes of homonymy”.

2.4.4 Homonymy

Homonymy is relation between two or more ethic expressions that have the same form but different meaning. Complete homonyms have the same pronounciation and the same spelling. In other word, homonyms are words which are spelled and pronounced alike, but differing in meaning. Homonym can be subdivided into homophone and homograph. Homophone is word that have the same pronounciation but different in spelling and meaning. For examples: - Flour fla υər means used for making bread or cake - Flower fla υər means the part of plant - Raise reiz means raise one’s hand - Raze reiz means destroy a building - Tale tail means story - Tail tail means one part of the animal body While homograph is word which have the same spelling but different in pronouncing and meaning. For examples: - Lead led means metal - Lead li:d means dog’s lead - Live liv means to be alive or remain a live Universitas Sumatera Utara - Live laiv means having life Another examples: He is a pupil Westerner’s pupil is blue Meaning : Pupil ’pyuwp əl student Pupil ’pyuwp əl part of the eye The words pupil ’pyuwp əl and pupil ’pyuwpəl are homonym because they are words with the same form, and sound pronounciation but different in meaning.

2.4.5 Hyponymy

Hyponymy is the relationship between the meaning of a word of which may be said to be included in that of another word. Palmer 1976:76 states that “hyponym involves us in the nation of inclusion in the sense”. For examples: Tulip, rose and jasmine are included in flower Lion, tiger and elephant are included in animal The meaning of the word flower is defined as the superordinate, in the sense it is the upper term. Whereas tulip is hyponym of flower, in the sense it is the lower term. Furthermore, Tulip, rose and jasmine are co-hyponyms of flower, since each is a hyponym of the same lexeme. A tulip is not necessarily called a tulip flower, since the meaning of the flower has been included in the meaning of rose. Universitas Sumatera Utara

2.4.6 Meronymy Meronymy is a part-whole relationship between lexical items. Thus, cover

and page are meronymy of book. This relationship can be illustrated by using sentence frames like X is part of Y, or Y has X, as in A page is part of a book, or A book has pages. Meronymy reflects hierarchical classifications in the lexicon somewhat like taxonomic classifications. Meronym differs from hyponym in transitivity. Not all meronimies are transitive. Hole is a meronym of button and button of shirt, but hole is not a meronym of shirt.

2.5 Relevance Study In additional of review of literature, there have been some analyses that

have ever been done: Nondang 2007, in her thesis An Analysis of Meaning Relations in Ernest Hemingway’s The Old Man And The Sea. Found types of meaning relations such as Antonym consist of complementary pairs 24, Gradable pairs 18, Relation pairs 5, Synonym 21, Polysemi 7, Homonym 12, and Hyponym 11. Margareta 2003. In her thesis An Analysis of Meaning Properties and Meaning Relation Used In Sydney Sheldon’s novel Nothing Last Forever. Has analyzed the novel Nothing Last Forever, and she found 20 sentences of meaningfulness, 7 sentences of anomaly, 6 sentences of contradictory, 7 lexical ambiguity, 5 sentences of structural ambiguity, and 6 sentences of redudancy. Meanwhile in meaning relation she found 16 sentences of homonym, 39 sentences of synonym, 21 sentences of complementary pairs, 16 sentences of gradable pairs, and 6 sentences of relation opposite pairs. Universitas Sumatera Utara Simbolon 2003, in her thesis An Analysis of Meaning Properties And Relations in Westlife’s Song. Has analyzed Westlife’s Song. In her analysis, she found 24 sentences of meaningfulness, 8 sentences of anomaly, 4 sentences of contradictory, 7 lexical ambiguity, 3 sructural ambiguity, and 5 sentences of redudancy. Meanwhile in meaning relation she found 7 sentences of homonym, 13 sentences of synonym, 8 sentences of complementary pairs, 10 sentences of gradable pairs, and 5 sentences of relation opposite pairs. Sinaga 2005. In his thesis, Types of Meaning and Their Relations in The Ant And Grasshoper. Found two types of meanings, they are connotative and denotative meanings, and three types of relations, they are synonym, polysemy, and homonym. And the total number of connotative meaning was 29 and denotative meaning was 23. It means that dominant type of main meaning was connotative meaning. The total number of synonym was 39, polysemy was 7, and homonym was 5. it means that dominant type of meaning relations was synonym. In this thesis I conclude that there is similarity between this research and some analyses mentioned above. In terms at types of meaning relations such as antonym, synonym, polysemy, homonym and hyponym. In this analysis the writer tries to applies palmer’s opinion about meaning relations. Universitas Sumatera Utara

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Method

I apply the library research to get the data and information in this thesis. According to Nawawi 1993: 30 states that library research is done by collecting the data from various of literature, in library or other places. Literature used unlimited only at some books, but can also shaped documentation, magazine, newspaper, etc. Library research is done by reading some books, which are related to the topic discussed. In order to support the reference and develop the fountain of information, I used internet access, trying to visit website and selected data fit to the topic discussed.

3.2 Data Collecting Method

Data in this research are sentences containing expressions that have meaning relations found in the novel “ The Color Purple” written by Alice Walker. And data are collected by reading all sentences containing expressions that have meaning relations found in the novel. Then the data is identified and classified.

3.3 Population and Sample

Population in this research is 188 sentences containing expressions that have meaning relations. And those sentences become the population in this Universitas Sumatera Utara