Critical Approaches Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter consists of three parts. The first part is the elaboration of theories used in this study. This section conveys the theory of critical approaches, the theory of character and characterization, the theory of culture and American culture, and the last is the theory of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis ALS. The second part is a review of the preceding related studies. The third part is the explanation of the used theories in this study conveyed before.

A. Theoretical Review

This section is divided into five parts. The first one deals with approaches that may be used in analyzing a novel. Character and characterization will be explained in the second and the third parts. The fourth section discusses the theory of culture and the theory of American culture which become the setting of the novel Tuesdays with Morrie. The last part explains about the symptom which Morrie suffers from, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis ALS.

1. Critical Approaches

Rohrberger and Wood Jr. 3-15 state that a critical approach to literature requires an understanding of its nature, function, and positive values. A literary work is valued from its beauty and the response to it is called the esthetic response. In so doing, five critical approaches are proposed. They are the formalist approach, the PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 8 biographical approach, the sociocultural-historical approach, the mythopoeic approach, and the psychological approach. The formalist approach sees the work of literary work as a whole without any consideration to other aspects of the work, such as the background of the author or the genre. It considers only the esthetic value of the work. In the biographical approach, the work of literature is seen as a reflection of the author’s personality and idea. To understand the work of literature, a reader must learn about the life and the development of the author. The sociocultural-historical approach sees a literary work as a result from civilization. This approach believes that behaviors and actions from particular society affect the production of the literary work. The mythopoeic approach tries to understand a literature work toward repeated patterns of human thought. These repeated patterns became the basic of expression in ancient myths and folk rites. As the mythopoeic approach, the psychological approach analyzes the periodic patterns of human thought. The difference of this approach is that it highlights the psychological aspects of the characters in a work of literature through their words, thoughts, and behavior.

2. Character a. Definition of Character

Abrams 20 suggests that characters are people that exist in a dramatic or narrative work who have moral and nature that are portrayed in their dialogue and their action. According to Forster 30-31, characters are word- masses arranged by a PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 9 novelist and are given names and sex. After having given names and sex, the novelist gives the characters gestures and makes them speak by giving the inverted commas. It is possible for the novelist to make the characters behave just as he expects. A character is created to fulfill certain purposes. Henkle 86 states “And the principle objective of the creation of characters in novels is to enable us to understand, and to experience, people.” Hence, by reading a novel, we can learn about people ’s personality, attitudes or behavior through its characters.

b. Types of Character

Henkle 88-96 uses the terms of major characters and secondary characters to differ kinds of character. A major character is the more eminent than the other one. This character is more often being talked by the other people in the novel. Furthermore, the major character is signified by the recurrent appearances in the story. An understanding to the major character may indicate an understanding to the novel. A secondary character is created to inhabit the world of the novel. As Henkle 94 states, “Since fiction presents human contexts, the secondary characters establish that context. ” Here, the secondary characters help in presenting a sense of human being. The understanding of time and milieu in the novel may be attained by observing the character’s regular basis activities. Categorizing kinds of characters to flat characters and round characters is proposed by Forsters 46-54. A flat character is described through what he says which reveals constant behavior from the character. Due to his unchanged behavior, this character is memorable by the readers. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 10 While a round character is a character that should be surprising in a particular time due to his inconsistency of what he has said. For this character, life is unpredictable and so his behavior undergoes changes as response to things happen. Holman and Harmon 83 categorized the kinds of characters into static character and dynamic character. The static character does not experience changing in his personality traits even though things happen to this character. The character is not intended to describe his response to things. On the contrary, the dynamic character shows changes in response to things happen.

3. Characterization a. Definition of Characterization

Murphy 161 explains the definition of characterization as ways of an author reveals his character’s personalities toward attitudes presented by the character. Characterization constitutes factors which enable authors to tell the human qualities in their novels. The factors guide the readers to obtain understanding of the human themes of the novels Henkle 86.

b. Ways of Characterization

There are nine ways of characterization suggested by Murphy. They are personal description, character as seen by another, speech, past life, conversation of others, reactions, direct comment, thoughts, and mannerism. The first way to describe a character is through personal description . In this way, readers can understand the character of a person by his physical appearance including the cloth. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 11 Character as seen by another is the second way to characterize a character. Instead of what a character presents, readers may understand the character through another opinion to the character. The third way of characterization is speech. The character is described with what he says. Anything that the character says, whether it is an opinion or a conversation may give clue to his personality. The fourth way of charac terization is past life. Using this way, the person’s character is portrayed by a description of his past life experiences. The past life may reveal through the person’s thoughts, through his dialogues, or through other people. Conversation of others is the fifth way of characterization. Readers of a novel might be able to understand the personality of a character by the conversation of other people. In this way, other people talk about the character in which we can conclude the character’s personality. The sixth way of characterization proposed by Murphy is reactions. Readers may obtain an understanding about a character’s personality by the revelation of the character’s response to many things happen. Direct comment is the next way of characterization. Through this way, an author gives his comment directly on a person’s character. The eighth way is thoughts. A feature that makes a novel special is that the readers are able to know what a person in the novel thinks. Through the thoughts of the person, the readers may know the character of him. The last way of characterization is mannerism. In this way, the readers may attain knowledge of a person’s character from habits, manners, or extraordinary trait revealed. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 12

4. Culture

This sub chapter is going to explain the definition of culture, qualities of culture, values, and American culture. The American culture then is explained into three parts that are history of American culture, characteristics of American culture, and values of American culture.

a. Definiton of Culture

Tylor as quoted by Merrill 129 defines culture as a complexity which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, habits and capabilities obtained by man as a member of society. Another definition of culture is proposed by White quoted in Merrill 129. She states that Culture is an organization of phenomena- acts patterns of behavior; objects tools, things made with tools; ideas belief, knowledge; and sentiments attitudes,’values’ – that is dependent upon the use of symbols. Culture began when man as an articulate, symbol-using primate, began. Because of its symbolic character… culture is easily and readily transmitted from one human organism to another. The history of culture, then, becomes the history of human being. From time to time, culture has been transmitted to the next generation. In so doing, some symbols in culture have been changed by adding and losing them. This constitutes an ongoing process. As human beings, we live in a culture. We obtain knowledge, belief, morals, and custom from the previous generation in the society. We apply habits that are applied as well by our surroundings. We also learn about the art and the law as parts of a culture. These components of a culture, then, will be transmitted to our next generations. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 13

b. Qualities of Culture

Adapted from Murdock, Merrill 135-136 suggests that culture has its characteristics that have a role in understanding the concept of culture. Merrill also has clarified the characteristic of the culture in terms of its qualities. They are the learned quality, the transmissive quality, the social quality, the ideational quality, the gratifying quality, the adaptive quality, and the integrative quality. The first quality is the learned quality. This quality suggests that culture is not endowed to human being. Instead, culture needs to be learned. Culture itself constitutes expected behaviors from society and is learned by a man so that uniformities of behavior are created. The uniformities of behavior are called culture. The second quality is the transmissive quality. This quality clarifies that culture is able to be transmitted from one generation to other generations. The transmission process of culture is cumulative. It means that a man in one generation may develop what has already been existing from the previous generation. Another quality, the third quality, is the social quality. In this quality, culture is explained to have a normative quality. The normative quality constitutes behavior expected by people in society. This normative expectations yield uniformities behavior. The fourth quality is the ideational quality. This quality explains that the uniformity behavior which becomes habits and constitutes the culture has to be an ideal for the society, so that the society may view, learn, and adapt themselves to the culture. The fifth quality is the gratifying quality which means culture is able to satisfy the human needs. The needs may be biological, such as thirst and hunger, but it may PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 14 also be the sociocultural needs such as falling in love and marrying. The next quality is the adaptive quality. This quality means that culture has to be able to adapt itself to its different aspect that may be changed, that is the geographical aspect. This quality has to exist to defend the presence of the culture itself. The last quality is the integrative quality. This quality suggests that culture has inclination to form a consistent whole. Every culture has its quality although this quality may seems obvious or not in any culture. The integrative quality of a culture is very obvious in a simple society where the people do not change significantly. On the contrary, integration is not really obvious in a complex and heterogeneous culture where the people are change constantly.

c. Values in a Society

Values, as a part of a culture, determine our behavior as human beings. Our behavior is much determined by values which prevail in a society. According to Stewart 16-20, values, as well as assumptions may be used to describe behavior. Assumptions are the reason of people’s actions, even though, not all of the assumptions govern the actions. For example, a person who has assumptions on himself as an individual, cooperation with others is needed, and his goal is to be a successful person, does not have to be a businessman. A group of people who have the same a ssumptions may create “reality” which then forms a culture. Different cultures in different areas happen because the people have different assumptions. Meanwhile, values more direct to “oughtness” in behavior. They emphasize on what the people ought to do. Since values and assumptions determine and constitute the reasons of people’s actions in a society, they reflect people’s behavior. In a society, there are values that PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 15 are acted by people repeatedly to describe or justify their actions. These are called cultural norms. Another description of values is conveyed by Ficther 293-294. He says that values exist in everything which is useful, admirable, and which makes people want to possess it. Through this idea, values in every person may be different since he might have different assumptions of what are considered useful, admirable, and so deserve to be possessed. Values which give meaning to a culture and a society have some characteristics. The first characteristic of values is that values are shared. It means that a group of people agree to the values. The second characteristic of values is that values are taken seriously. People are attached to the values in order to maintain the common welfare and to satisfy the social needs. The third characteristic of values is that values involve people’s emotions. They compel people to sacrifice or even die for the sake of the highest values. The last characteristic is values may be abstracted from various valued items because values constitute agreement among many people. However, there is a different idea of values that is proposed by Henry 13-15. According to him, value is associated with good things. These constitute actions which are expected by people in our surrounding to show. Values can be found in family or friendship and they constitute the idea of good human relations.

d. American Culture 1 History of American People

The history of American culture began at the same time as the history of American people. According to Current et al 2, in the 17 th century Englishmen tried PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 16 to move to a place where they could be released from bad conditions in their origin country. The Englishmen then called America as a New World where they were able to be free from the lack of their origin country. Also, the Englishmen thought that this New World would give opportunities that could make them happy. The Englishmen, then in 1750 called Americans, developed certain characteristics that were different from Englishmen in England. There are three reasons underlie the differences of characteristics between the Americans and the Englishmen. The first reason is because the Americans were different. They did not inherit general character of Englishmen. The Americans were more not satisfied with their origin and more adventurous. The second reason is that the Americans adapted and developed some particular elements of English in the New World where everything was strange . The last reason is that American culture constitutes many different cultures originating from Europe and Africa. This is because in the eighteenth century, there were many people from many countries who came to America such as from Africa, Holland, Scotland, Ireland, and from other countries in the European continent. Besides from Europe and Africa, the different cultures also came from Asia and Latin Gordon 39. The process of becoming Americans has led them to develop certain characteristics which become typical characters of American people. Since culture is the result of the existence society, the characters of American people, thus, form the American culture. 2 Characteristics of American Culture According to Henry 13-14, culture as a result of community existence brings about two aspects that attach in American daily life. These aspects are called values PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 17 and drives. American people associate values with good things, such as love, honesty, fun, and relaxation. They exist in family and friend relationships. On the other hand, drives are associated with things which are able to make people want them more and bigger. Drives lead people to expansiveness. Drives are found in occupational world and move many activities which direct people to getting ahead, rising in the social scale, outstripping others, just as in business activities. American culture is a driven culture. American people are driven by achievement, competitive, profit and mobility drives, security, and by a desire to a higher standard of living. These kinds of drives direct people to expansiveness. Drives are easily found in occupational realm where competition with colleague often happens. Moreover, this realm indeed requires people with drives. Many jobs set goals that can be achieved toward achievement, competition, profit, mobility or even a higher standard of living. In America, people can easily get job opportunities if they are moved by drives. Henry states that It is no problem at all to locate jobs requiring an orientation toward achievement, competition, profit, and mobility, or even toward a higher standard of living. But it is difficult to find one requiring outstanding capacity for love, kindness, quietness, contentment, fun, frankness and simplicity 14. If people are moved by values, they have to really search the jobs because the jobs underlain by values are very rare. Moreover, the jobs with values usually will only yield small amount of money and is low prestige. 3 Values in the American Culture According to Fichter 308-310, even though American people consist of various ethnic groups and cultures that lead them to have different values, there are PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 18 some values which are shared by the people and are called “an ultimate core” of values. Those values are the value of rational approach to life, the value of progress, the value on individual success, the value on working and the value of freedom for the individual. The first value, that is the value of rational approach, makes American people reasonable in thinking or acting. They always try to be as effective as they can in using time and making efforts. The scientific ways are preferable to Americans in solving problems. The second value is the value of progress. It leads American people to have faith in the future and so they are ready for changes and welcome experimentation. The third value is the value of individual success. This value is a description that success is not only measured by economic and business realms. A self-made man or woman such as a professional dancer or a highly paid singer may also be a measurement for success. The next value is the value upon working which is highly valued by American people. It determines a man’s worth toward his function to society. Working yields material comfort, leisure, and success and so American people put emphasize on getting things done and are in a hustle and bustle circumstance. The value of freedom for the individual is the last value in “an ultimate core” of values. This value brings the people into an understanding that freedom is not only the matter of free from economic or political restraints. A man’s moral responsibility, his inviolability, and his dignity are really of taken account as an individual freedom. This value should not be violated, even though sometimes it is violated. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 19 Regarding to the value of individual freedom, Stewart 70-71 conveys that to Americans, children have already been taught to be autonomous since in the early age. Hence, a child or a person is expected to be able to face the world using his own way such as developing his own opinions and view the world from his own point of view. These behaviors are in individualism value. This value then underlies people to have an emotional effect namely self-reliance which actually unrelated to nowadays technological American culture. This self-reliance motivates people to look for autonomy, self-actualization and personal growth. The value of self-reliance is emotionally perceived by American people. Stewart 41-42 also suggests another American value namely measurable achievement. This value is related to the people’s activities or actions in their daily life which only admit achievements with visible achievements. In consequence, this value leads American people to seek for a sensation in achieving something, for personal triumph, or for visible achievement.

5. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

There are many diseases that have terminal effect, one of them is Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis ALS. According to What is Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis?http:www.ninds.nih.govdisordersamyotrophiclateralsclerosisdetail_am- yotrophiclateralsclerosis.htm., ALS is a neurological disease that attacks neurons which control voluntarily movement of our bodies. This disease is signaled by progressive degradation of motor neurons and the death of the neurons. The symptoms of ALS are subtle and often ignored. ALS patients will firstly undergo cramp or stiffness of muscles which affect the arm or leg, the ability of PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 20 speaking, and difficulty in chewing and swallowing. The part of the body which is affected by the disease depends on which muscles attacked first by the disease. In some cases, the disease will attack leg muscles first which make the patients often stumbling or tripping when they are walking. The disease spreads to other parts of the body and causes weaknesses. The patients then will develop problems with moving, swallowing, and speaking. As the diseases progresses, the patients will also experience difficulty in breathing since the muscles of the respiratory system become weak. The patients then lose the ability to breathe without support from ventilator. Most of ALS patients die from respiratory failure, and are able to survive for three to five years from the beginning of the symptoms. There is no drug found yet to cure ALS. However, there is a drug namely Riluzole that has been approved by Food and Drug Administration FDA to reduce damage to motor neuron. This drug is beneficial for ALS patients in terms of prolonging their life and of extending the time before they need ventilators to help them breathe. To improve quality of patients ’ life, role of health care professionals are needed. The health care professionals may consist of physicians, pharmacists, physical, occupational, and speech therapists, nutritionists, social workers, home care, and hospice nurse. They may help the patients both physically and psychologically. Physicians are able to give prescriptions which contain medication to help reduce fatigue for instance. ALS patients often experience sleep disturbance and one of medications the physicians give may reduce the disturbance. Physical therapists may give series of exercises such as walking, stationary bicycling, and swimming to PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 21 avoid patients from fatigue and depression. The role of occupational therapist lies on suggesting the use of devices to help patients remain mobile, such as the use of walkers and wheelchairs. Caregivers may cooperate with therapists and nutritionists in case of providing the nutritious meals. Social workers, home care, and hospice nurses are able to help ALS patients in a sense of emotional condition of patients and families and also of financial matters. Support from many aspects for ALS patients is needed to maximize quality of their life.

B. Review of Related Studies

The novel Tuesdays with Morrie has attracted a lot of people in the world. Many people are touched by the story of Morrie’s struggle. Since the story contains good values, it was made into a movie and was presented on ABC- TV in December 1999 http:mitchalbom.comdnode3729. Two researchers from the English Language Study Program, Sanata Dharma University had used the novel for their studies. The first writer was Sri Murni Lestari whose study entitled The Influence of Morrie on Mitch’s Personality Development as Reflected in Mitch Albom’s Tuesdays with Morrie. The second writer was Lissa whose work entitled A Study of Morrie’s Self Actualization as Seen in Mitch Albom’s Tuesdays with Morrie. Lestari’s study discusses the changes in Mitch’s personality. Through psychological approach, she reveals how Morrie can change Mitch’s personality into a better one. Whereas Lissa’s thesis discusses Morrie’s self-actualization using psychological approach. In this thesis, Morrie is explained to be able to self-actualize PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI