THE SUN: AN IDEAL ENERGY SOURCE

18.18. THE SUN: AN IDEAL ENERGY SOURCE

Solar power is an ideal source of energy that is unlimited in supply, widely available, and inexpensive. It does not add to the earth's total heat burden or produce chemical air and water pollutants. On a global basis, utilization of only a small fraction of solar energy reaching the earth could provide for all energy needs. In the United States, for example, with conversion efficiencies ranging from 10-30%, it would only require collectors ranging in area from one tenth down to one thirtieth that of the state of Arizona to satisfy present U.S. energy needs. (This is still an enormous amount of land, and there are economic and environmental problems related to the use of even a fraction of this amount of land for solar energy collection. Certainly, many residents of Arizona would not be pleased at having so much of the state devoted to solar collectors, and some environmental groups would protest the resultant shading of rattlesnake habitat.)

Solar power cells (photovoltaic cells) for the direct conversion of sunlight to elec- tricity have been developed and are widely used for energy in space vehicles. With present technology, however, they remain too expensive for large-scale generation of electricity, although the economic gap is narrowing. Most schemes for the utilization of solar power depend upon the collection of thermal energy followed by conversion to electrical energy. The simplest such approach involves focusing sunlight on a steam-generating boiler (see Illustration 6 in Figure 18.5 ). Parabolic reflectors can be Solar power cells (photovoltaic cells) for the direct conversion of sunlight to elec- tricity have been developed and are widely used for energy in space vehicles. With present technology, however, they remain too expensive for large-scale generation of electricity, although the economic gap is narrowing. Most schemes for the utilization of solar power depend upon the collection of thermal energy followed by conversion to electrical energy. The simplest such approach involves focusing sunlight on a steam-generating boiler (see Illustration 6 in Figure 18.5 ). Parabolic reflectors can be

The direct conversion of energy in sunlight to electricity is accomplished by special solar voltaic cells. Such devices based on crystalline silicon have operated with

a 15% efficiency for experimental cells and 11-12% for commercial units, at a cost of 25-50 cents per kilowatt-hour (kWh), about 5 times the cost of conventionally generated electricity. Part of the high cost results from the fact that the silicon used in the cells must be cut as small wafers from silicon crystals for mounting on the cell surfaces. Significant advances in costs and technology are being made with thin-film photovoltaics, which use an amorphous silicon alloy. A new approach to the design and construction of amorphous silicon film photovoltaic devices uses three layers of amorphous silicon to absorb, successively, short wavelength (“blue”), intermediate wavelength (“green”), and long wavelength (“red”) light, as shown in Figure 18.11 . Thin-film solar panels constructed with this approach have achieved solar-to-electricity energy conversion efficiencies just over 10%, lower than those using crystalline silicon, but higher than other amorphous

Figure 18.11. High-efficiency thin-film solar photovoltaic cell using amorphous silicon.

film devices. The low cost and relatively high conversion efficiencies of these solar panels should enable production of electricity at only about twice the cost of conventional electrical power, which would be competitive in some situations

A major disadvantage of solar energy is its intermittent nature. However, flexibility inherent in an electric power grid would enable it to accept up to 15% of its total power input from solar energy units without special provision for energy storage. Existing hydroelectric facilities may be used for pumped-water energy storage in conjunction with solar electricity generation. Heat or cold can be stored in water, in a latent form in water (ice) or eutectic salts, or in beds of rock. Enormous amounts of heat can be stored in water as a supercritical fluid contained at high temperatures and very high pressures deep underground. Mechanical energy can be stored with compressed air or flywheels.

Hydrogen gas, H 2 , is an ideal chemical fuel that may serve as a storage medium Hydrogen gas, H 2 , is an ideal chemical fuel that may serve as a storage medium

(18.18.1) The hydrogen fuel product, and even oxygen, can be piped some distance and the

2H 2 O + electrical energy → 2H 2 (g) + O 2 (g)

hydrogen burned without pollution, or it may be used in a fuel cell (Illustration 5 in Figure 18.5 ). This may, in fact, make possible a “hydrogen economy.” Disadvantages of using hydrogen as a fuel include its low heating value per unit volume and the wide range of explosive mixtures it forms with air. Although not yet economical,

photochemical processes can be used to split water to H 2 and O 2 that can be used to power fuel cells. No really insurmountable barriers exist to block the development of solar energy, such as might be the case with fusion power. In fact, the installation of solar space and water heaters became widespread in the late 1970s, and research on solar energy was well supported in the U.S. until after 1980, when it became fashionable to believe that free-market forces had solved the “energy crisis.” With the installation of more heat- ing devices and the probable development of some cheap, direct solar electrical gener- ating capacity, it is likely that during the coming century solar energy will be provid- ing an appreciable percentage of energy needs in areas receiving abundant sunlight.

The Surprising Success of Wind Power

Wind power is mentioned here because it is an indirect form of solar energy. During the 1990s, wind power emerged as a cost-competitive source of renewable energy with a remarkably high growth rate. Denmark has led other countries in establishing wind power as a significant fraction of its electrical generating capacity.

Even in the United States wind power is gaining popularity, 7 and in 1999 the U. S. set a goal of providing a significant fraction of its electricity from wind within the next two decades.

In October 1996, the largest wind farm established up to that time in Europe was opened in Carno, Wales, by National Wind Power, Ltd. This was the 32nd wind farm in Britain, which was already generating enough electricity from wind to power 150,000 homes. Producing 33.6 megawatts of power, the 3-bladed turbines used to generate power at the Welsh facility are 56 meters in diameter and are mounted on towers 64 m high.

Northern regions, including parts of Alaska, Canada, the Scandanavian countries, and Russia often have consistently strong wind conditions conducive to the generation of wind power. Isolation from other sources of energy makes wind power attractive

for many of these regions. 8 Severe climate conditions in these regions pose special challenges for wind generators. One problem can be the buildup of rime consisting of ice condensed directly on structures from supercooled fog in air. 9