Contributions to theory development

a replication loop is significant. This means that, although a single project that contributes to theory development will have an end see Flowchart 1, there is usually no end to the further development of a theory see Flowchart 2. Theory-oriented research is hardly ever “fin- ished”. This also means that every contribution in any place in Flowchart 2 is relevant. Contributing to the development of a theory entails always adding a small brick to a large building. Many theory-oriented research proposals mention as their objective to “fill a gap” in our theoretical knowledge. Usually this means that the authors have found that a relevant proposition has not yet been for- mulated. “Filling the gap”, then, means formulating a new proposition: theory-building research. Flowchart 2 helps to identify other types of “gap” in a theory. It is, for instance, also a “gap” if a proposition is not, or not yet, sufficiently tested. Thus, theory-testing research can also be seen as “filling a gap” in our theoretical knowledge, and perhaps an even more important one.

3.3 Principles of practice-oriented research

The objective of practice-oriented research is to contribute to the knowledge of a practitioner not practitioners in general. A practi- tioner is a person or group of persons with either a formal or an infor- mal responsibility for a real life situation in which heshe acts or must act. A practitioner can be a person a manager, an entrepreneur, a pol- icy maker, a staff member, etc. or a group of persons a team, a com- pany, a business sector, a nation, etc.. A practitioner needs knowledge to solve or clarify a “problem” in an identified practice. Before we dis- cuss in 3.3.2 the different types of contribution to a practice that practice-oriented research can make, we first discuss the concept of a practice 3.3.1.

3.3.1 Practice

We define a practice as the real life situation for which a practitioner has either a formal or an informal responsibility and in which heshe acts or must act. A practice cannot be defined “objectively” but is defined through and by the perspective of the practitioner a person or an organization and by how he conceives his duties and responsi- bilities. The idea of practice-oriented research is based on the assump- tion that practitioners can make use of knowledge about their practice when they act or make decisions, and that they have knowledge needs i.e. knowledge that they do not yet have but need in order to act or decide more effectively or efficiently. Practice-oriented research is designed and conducted in order to produce the knowledge that is needed by practitioners. However, if they ask researchers to design and conduct a study, practitioners normally have not yet formulated their specific knowledge needs. Similar to theory-oriented research, in which the most relevant proposition to be put to test and in what precise for- mulation should be ascertained through a thorough exploration of the theory, in practice-oriented research a thorough exploration of practice is necessary in order to ascertain the most relevant know- ledge need in this practice and in what precise formulation. When we use the term “theory” as in “theory-oriented research” and in “exploration of theory”, we do not refer to a specific theory but rather to the field of theories. One of the aims of exploration of theory is to identify in that field one or more specific theories that are relevant to the research topic. We have used the empirical cycle to define different ways theory-building, initial theory-testing, and replication by which a research project can contribute to the development of a specific theory. Theory-oriented research, thus, begins with the general aim to con- tribute to a yet unknown and thus to be specified theory regarding the chosen research topic, but after a successful exploration the more specific aim of contributing to a specific theory can be formulated. Similarly, if we use the term “practice” as in “practice-oriented research” and in “exploration of practice”, we do not refer to an already specified problem to be solved, but rather to the yet unstructured set of problems with which the practitioner is dealing. One of the aims of exploration of practice is to identify in that set one or more specific knowledge needs that need to be addressed. We will use the interven- tion cycle to prioritize a practitioner’s challenges and the corresponding knowledge needs. Practice-oriented research, thus, begins with the general aim to provide the practitioner with some knowledge that he might need in order to act, but, after a successful exploration, a more specific knowledge need can be formulated.

3.3.2 Practice-oriented research: contribution to a practitioner’s knowledge

Practice-oriented research is only useful if it delivers the knowledge that a practitioner can actually use in his actual situation and, therefore, it is of paramount importance that his knowledge need is precisely