The relationship between critical thinking skill and argument writing skill, (a correlational study at the twelfth grade students of sma kharisma bangsa)

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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CRITICAL THINKING

SKILL AND ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING SKILL

(

A Correlational Study at the Twelfth Grade Students of SMA

Kharisma Bangsa, Tangerang Selatan

)

Nofianatul Hasanah 1111014000072

THE DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TARBIYAH AND TEACHERS’ TRAINING

SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY

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ABSTRACT

Nofianatul Hasanah (1111014000072). The Relationship between Critical Thinking Skill and Argumentative Writing Skill: A Correlational Study at the Twelfth Grade Students of SMA Kharisma Bangsa, Academic Year 2015/2016.

The objective of this study was to describe the relationship between critical thinking skill and argumentative writing skill. The population of this study was the twelfth grade students of SMA Kharisma Bangsa. Correlatioan method was applied in this study. There were two instruments in collecting the data; the first instrument was to measure students’ critical thinking skill, in this case, Cornell Critical Thinking Tests, Form X were administered to the samples. The second instrument was to measure students’ argumentative writing skill, in this study, an instruction asking the students to write argumentative essay were given to the students. The data collected then were calculated by using Pearson Product Moment correlation coefficient and t-test with sig. 5% and 1%. Based on the research analysis, it shows that the result of the Product Moment correlation is

= 0.573, it is higher than r table value in the significance of 5% and 1%. ( =

0.573> =0.304 and = 0.573> ). Moreover, based on the calculation of the t test, it is found that the score of t= 4.01 and it is higher than the score of t table, which t=4.01> =1.67 and t=4.01> = 2.43. It means that Ho is rejected and H1 is accepted. Besides, based on determination coefficient analysis, critical thinking skill has 32.8% contribution in the students’ argumentative writing skill. Based on the result above, it shows that there is significant relationship between critical thinking skill and argumentative writing study of the twelfth grade students of SMA Kharisma Bangsa, academic year 2015/2016. Therefore, it can be concluded that the higher the students critical thinking skill, the better their argumentative writing skill.

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ABSTRAK

Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan hubungan antara kemampuan berpikir kritis dan kemampuan menulis argumentatif. Populasi dalam penelitian ini adalah siswa kelas XII SMA Kharisma Bangsa yang berjumlah 68 orang. Sampel dalam penelitian ini diambil dengan menggunakan teknik purposif dengan jumlah 35 siswa. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode korelasi. Ada dua instrumen yang digunakan untuk mendapatkan data penelitian, pertama, instrumen yang digunakan untuk mengukur kemampuan berprikir kritis siswa yaitu menggunakan Cornell Critical Thinking Test yang dikembangkan oleh R. Ennis dkk., kedua, instrumen untuk mengukur kemampuan menulis siswa yaitu sebuah panduan untuk menulis esai argumentatif. Data dianalisis menggunakan rumus korelasi Pearson Product Moment dan dilanjutkan dengn uji t (t-test) dengan signifikansi 5% dan 1%. Hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa hasil perhitungan korelasi Product Moment sebesar 0,573, nilai ini lebih besar dari harga r tabel (r-table) pada signifikansi 5% adan 1% ( = 0,573> = 0,304 dan = 0,573> ). Selanjutnya, berdasarkan uji t diperoleh nilai t adalah 4,01, dan nilai ini lebih besar dari harga t tabel yaitu t=4,01> = 1,67 dan t=4,01> = 2,43. Merujuk pada hasil uji hipotesis statistik menunjukkan bahwa Ho ditolak, maka secara otomatis H1 diterima. Disamping itu, berdasarkan hasil perhitungan koefisien determinasi, kemampuan berpikir kritis berkontribusi sebesar 32,8% terhadap kemampuan menulis argumentatif siswa. Dari hasil uji hipotesis statistik dan uji t (t-test) menunjukkan bahwa ada hubungan yang signifikan antara kemampuan berpikir kritis dan kemampuan menulis pada siswa kelas XII SMA Kharisma Bangsa, tahun akademik 2015/2016. Sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa semakin tinggi tingkat berprikir kritis siswa, semakin baik kemampuan menulis esai argumentatif mereka.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the Name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful

Praised be to Allah, Lord of the worlds, who has given the writer His love and compassion to finish the last assignment in her study. Peace and salutation be upon to the prophet Muhammad, his family, his companion, and his adherence.

In this occasion, the writer would like to express her greatest appreciation, honor, and gratitude to her beloved family: Ibu, Kak Didit, Adek Diah and Luluk who always give her support, motivation, inspiration and moral encouragement in finishing her research. I really love you guys.

Her gratitude is also addressed to her advisors, Dr. Alek, M.Pd. and Zaharil Anasy, M.Hum., for their patience, valuable guidance, comments, and suggestions in accomplishing her research.

The writer’s sincere gratitude also goes to:

1. Prof. Dr. Ahmad Thib Raya, MA., the Dean of the Faculty of Tarbiya and Teachers’ Training Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta, 2. Dr. Alek, M.Pd, the Chairman of English Education Department,

3. Zaharil Anasy, M.Hum., the Secretary of English Education Department, 4. Maya Devianty, M.Pd, the Academic Advisor of EED family 2011(B),

5. All lecturers of English Education of Tarbiya and Teachers’ Training Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta, for their knowledge, motivation, patience during her study at the English Education Department 6. Mrs Lia, the English Teacher of SMA Kharisma Bangsa, who helps the writer

in collecting the data as well as being the rater of this study.

7. All of the twelfth grade students of SMA Kharisma Bangsa, who were willing to be the participants in this study.

8. All of teachers, staffs and friends at SMA Kharisma Bangsa, particularly; Aygozel, Ayna, Farzona.

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10.Her beloved friends in ELC (English Language Club); Uswa, Neng Fuji, Wurry, Tami, Firda, Ervi, Oma, Farhan, Ari, Abid, Sabil, Agung et al., who always motivate, support and cheer the writer up in anything.

11.Her beloved Dershane Family (Papatya, Gul and Lale) and HM family, and 12. Her beloved friends in White Pierl Club Indonesia, who supported and helped

her in finishing her research. May Allah. The Almighty bless them all, so be it.

Finally, the writer does realize that this research is still far from being perfect. Critics and suggestions are really acceptable to make it better.

Tangerang, September 10th 2015 The Writer

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ABSTRACT ………..…... i

ABSTRAK ……… ii

ACKNOWLEGMENT ……… iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ……… v

LIST OF TABLES ……….……….. viii

LIST OF FIGURE ………... ix

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ……….… x

LIST OF APPENDICES ……….… xi

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION………...…………. 1

A. Background of the Study……….. 1

B. Identification of the Problems..………..…….. 4

C. Limitation of the Problem………. 5

D. Formulation of the Problem……….………….. 5

E. Objective of the Study………...……... 5

F. Significance of the Study……….. 6

CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK………... 7

A. The Concept of Critical Thinking...……… 7

1. Definition of Critical Thinking...…………. 7

2. Characteristic of Critical Thinker...………. 8

3. Kinds of Critical Thinking Skill...…... 10

4. Benefits of Critical Thinking...…………. 12

5. Critical Thinking Test...…...………. 14

B. The Concept of Writing...……... 16

1. The Nature of Writing...…...………. 16

2. Writing Process...…...…………... 16

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4. Characteristic of Good Writing...…... 20

5. Writing Assessment...…...……… 22

6. Argumentative Writing...…... 23

7. Elements of Argumentative Writing... 24

8. Factors Influencing Argumentative Writing... 25

9. The Role of Thinking in Writing……… 27

C. Relevant Previous Studies………. 28

D. Conceptual Framework……….. 29

E. Research Hypotheses…...………..… 31

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY……… 32

A. Time and Place of the Study……… 32

B. Research Design………... 32

C. Population and Sample of the Study…………....… 33

D. Research Instruments………... 33

1. Critical Thinking Test……… 34

2. Argumentative Writing Test………... 35

E. Technique of Data Collection …..………..………. 35

F. Technique of Data Analysis……….….……… 35

1. Test of Linearity Data……...………... 36

2. Test of Normality Data…..………... 36

3. Test of Correlation Coefficient……... 37

G. Statistical Hypotheses……… 39

CHAPTER IV FINDING OF THE STUDY……….. 40

A. Description of the Data………... 40

1. Description of Critical Thinking Data………….. 41

2. Description of Argumentative Writing Data…… 42

B. Data Analysis and Testing Hypotheses………. 44

1. Data Analysis……… 44

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b. Analysis of Data Normality……...………… 46

c. Analysis Correlation Product Moment…….. 46

2. Testing Hypotheses………...………….. 51

C. Discussion………... 51

D. Limitation………..…………... 52

CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS………... 56

A. Conclusions……….. 56

B. Implication………... 57

C. Suggestions………... 57

BIBLIOGRAPHY………... 59

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Table of Bloom Taxonomy……... 11 Table 2.2 Table of Critical Thinking Activity………... 12 Table 3.1 Table of r Score Interpretation... 37 Table 4.1 Table of the Descriptive Statistic of Critical Thinking Skill

Data……... 40 Table 4.2 Table of the Descriptive Statistic of Argumentative Writing

Ability Data of Rater 1 and Rater 2……... 41 Table 4.3 Table of Data Linearity Analysis………... 45 Table 4.4 Table of Data Normality Analysis………...…. 46 Table 4.5 Table of the Final Score of Critical Thinking and Argumentative

Writing………... 48

Table 4.4 Table of the Results of Pearson Product Moment Correlation…... 51

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Writing Process Wheel………... 18 Figure 4.1 Histogram of the Students‟ Score Frequency of Critical

Thinking Test………... 39 Figure 4.2 Final Score of Argumentative Writing Ability Test……... 44

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1 Critical Thinking Test Instrument………... 64

Appendix 2 Argumentative Writing Test Instrument………... 80

Appendix 3 Assessment Rubric of Writing Test………... 81

Appendix 4 Raw Data of Critical Thinking Score………... 82

Appendix 5 Raw Data of Argumentative Writing Score…………... 83

Appendix 6 Descriptive Statistic of Critical Thinking Data………... 84

Appendix 7 Descriptive Statistic of Argumentative Writing Data Rater 1………... 85

Appendix 8 Descriptive Statistic of Argumentative Writing Data Rater 2………... 86

Appendix 9 Descriptive Statistic of Final Score of Argumentative Writing………... 87

Appendix 10 Data Linearity Analysis………... 88

Appendix 11 Data Normality Analysis………... 89

Appendix 12 Product Moment Correlation Analysis………... 90

Appendix 13 Variable X and Y Table………... 91

Appendix 14 “r” Product Moment Correlation Table ………... 92

Appendix 15 “t” Table………... 93

Appendix 16 Example of Students‟ Writing 1………... 94

Appendix 17 Example of Students‟Writing 2………... 95

Appendix 18 Example of Students‟ Writing 3………... 96

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AW : Argumentative Writing

CT : Critical Thinking

CCTT : Cornell Critical Thinking Test

CCTST : California Critical Thinking Skill Test W-GCTA : Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This chapter reveals the problems, the reasons and the purpose underlying the writer conducting this study. All of them is described into background of the study, identification of the problems, limitation of the problems, formulation of the problem, objective of the study and the significance of the study.

A. The Background of the Study

Writing is one of English skills that should be learnt by the students in both junior and senior high school as stated in the curriculum. As a skill, therefore; writing can be learnt like any other skills. The aim of learning writing skill is to make students be able to write many types of writing in English such as report, descriptive, narrative, and argumentative and etc. In addition, the purpose of learning writing skill is to make students be able to communicate in English through writing.1

Learning writing skill is indispensable for students as writing skill is one of an important part in communication. Through writing, the students can transfer information and knowledge, as well as share their ideas to others. Moreover, good writing skill allow students to communicate their message to the readers with clarity.

In this era, writing is used extensively in higher education, workplace and other field. Therefore, the students who do not know how to express themselves in writing, they will find some difficulties to communicate well with the teacher, professor, friends, or just about anyone else. More importantly, the success of the students in learning is often influenced by writing skill. It is because writing skill is needed when students doing the test, research, writing essay, taking note or any other activities in the process of teaching and learning.

Indonesian National Education Ministry Regulation No. 22 year 2006, Standard Competency and Basic Competency in Senior High School, 2015, p. 307, (http://bsnp-indonesia.org/id/?page_id=103).

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Writing is a process of communicating idea into written form. In composing writing, various factors influence the process of writing, like content, vocabulary, idea, organization, language use and mechanics in writing. Language use is one of the crucial components as students have to learn the grammar, syntactic structure, vocabulary and etc., however; critical thinking ability seems to be the most significant component affecting writing process. It is because in every stage of writing the writer uses their thinking to create, to investigate and to revise his/her idea. Furthermore, the ability to think critically is needed to organize the idea logically and reasonably.

Meanwhile, writing is often considered as the most difficult and complex activity among the four language skills in English. This is because the process of writing requires a set of competencies.2 In addition, writing does not only require the mastery of linguistic such as grammar vocabulary, pronunciation, intonation, etc. but also requires the conceptual judgment and critical thinking. As stated by Heaton, “The writing skills are complex and sometimes difficult to teach, requiring mastery not only of grammatical and rhetorical device, but also of conceptual and judgmental elements”.3

Based on Indonesian curriculum, there are various types of writing that should be learnt by the students including expository, narrative, descriptive, recount and argumentative.4 All of those skills are useful for students, however; the ability of argumentative writing seems to be the most crucial one. It is because the ability of argumentative writing used more in the field of education and workplace than other. It is needed for writing article and essay, conducting research and applying scholarship and etc. Moreover, argumentative writing skill is also regarded as the most difficult among other writing skill. It is because composing argumentative writing requires students to have a critical thinking, scientific ideas, and argumentative expression. Richards and Schmidt define

Douglas H. Brown, Teaching by Principles an Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy, (London: Addison Wesley Longman, 2007), 2nd ed., p. 391.

J. B. Heaton, Writing English Language Test, (New York: Longman, 1988), p. 135.

Indonesian National Education Ministry Regulation No. 22 year 2006, Standard Competency and Basic Competency in Senior High School, 2015, p. 307, (http://bsnp-indonesia.org/id/?page_id=103).

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argumentative writing as composition which the writers give their opinion and arguments as well as evidence in order to support or defend position.5. Therefore, argumentative writing skill is important to be learnt because it helps students to develop their thinking and research skills for it needs the writer opinion and argument.

Such vivid explanation of how important writing skill, argumentative writing skill in particular, make the existence of this skill becomes important to be learnt by students. In SMA Kharisma Bangsa, argumentative writing is learnt in the twelfth grade of Senior High School. Argumentative writing skill is very indispensable to be mastered because that kind of skill is needed by the students in writing essay, it is one of final projects that should be completed by the students before they are graduated. However, students still have serious problems in dealing with writing, particularly in argumentative writing. Some students are still confused on how to put the idea into written form. It was proven when the writer did a teaching and learning observation at the twelfth grade students of SMA Kharisma Bangsa. The result of the observation shows that some students still have difficulty in arranging the idea coherently.

Moreover, based on the school data of SMA Kharisma Bangsa, students‟ scores in argumentative writing are low. The average score (mean score) is 74.8. This is the lowest score among other writing skills. The teacher revealed that some students feel hard to write because they feel difficult to develop the topic and they often get stuck in the middle of writing. Thus, it causes students getting bored and stressed in composing this text. Therefore, it influences the quality of students writing, particularly in argumentative writing.

The level of students‟ English competencies in SMA Kharisma Bangsa is commonly equal as English is their main language used in teaching and learning process. However, there are some differences on the score that the students reached in writing argumentative. Some of the students got good score and some of them got low score. Therefore, the writer assumes that the problems of the

J. C. Richards & R. Schmidt, Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, (London: Longman- Pearson Education, 2010), 4th ed., p. 337.

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students of SMA Kharisma Bangsa in argumentative writing skill is not because they lack of English competencies, yet there is another factor influenced students writing. Kellogg claimed that writing academically is a main cognitive challenge, because it is a test of memory, language, and thinking ability as well.6 Since the level of thinking ability is one of the factors influenced writing skill, it also could be the factor impeding the students writing skill of SMA Kharisma Bangsa.

Thinking skill has three broad categories: reflective, creative, and critical. Critical thinking skill is regarded to be the most effecting writing skill in argumentative. As Fahim and Mirzaii argue that the ability to write argumentatively depends on the students‟ critical thinking skill.7 Critical thinking is reasonable, logical and reflective thinking,8 it is also an ability to analyze and evaluate the matter issue or problem. Such thinking is needed in argumentative writing. In this study therefore, argumentative is considered to be a manifestation of critical thinking skills, since a writer needs to analyse, evaluate and give arguments and present a logical text to convince the reader.

From the problems occurred above, the writer believes that the level of students‟ critical thinking is the cause of those problems. Therefore, there is a need to investigate the relationships between critical thinking skills and writing skill and decide which skills have important role and priority in a good argumentative writing skill. Therefore, in this study, the writer intends to investigate whether or not there is a correlation between students‟ critical thinking skill and students‟ writing skill especially in argumentative writing at the twelfth grade of SMA Kharisma Bangsa, with the title of the research is “The

Relationship between Critical Thinking Skill and Argumentative Writing Skill”.

R. T. Kellogg, Long-term Working Memory in Text Production, Memory & Cognition, 2(3), 2001, 43—52.

M. Fahim & M. Mirzaii, Improving EFL Argumentative Writing: A Dialogic Critical Thinking Approach, International Journal of Research Studies in Language Learning, Vol. 3, 2014, p. 8.

Ennis R. H., “A Taxonomy of Critical Thinking Skills and Dispositions,” in Teaching Thinking Skills: Theory and Practice, (New York: Freeman, 1987), pp. 9—26.

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B. The Identification of the Problems

Based on the background of the study stated above, the problems were identified as follow:

1. Some students revealed that they are still confused on how to put the idea into written form. The complexity in composing argumentative writing causes students getting bored and stressed in composing this text. Therefore, it influences the quality of their writing.

2. The twelfth grade students of SMA Kharisma Bangsa supposed to have good argumentative writing skill because this skill has already learnt by them. However, the score gained by the students is the lowest score among other writing skill; the average (mean) score is 74.8.

3. Some students feel hard to write because they feel difficult to develop the topic and they often get stuck in the middle of writing. The difficulty of students in writing is not only because of their English competency, yet there is another factor impeding students in composing argumentative writing. One of the important factors considered in influencing argumentative writing is critical thinking skill.

C. The Limitation of the Problem

The problems of this study were limited to critical thinking skill in relation to writing skill of argumentative of the Twelfth Grade Students of Senior High School of Kharisma Bangsa (SMA Kharisma Bangsa), academic year of 2015/2016.

D. The Formulation of the Problem

Based on the limitation of the problem above, the problem of this study is formulated into following question: Is there any significant relationship between critical thinking skill and argumentative writing skill of the twelfth grade students of SMA Kharisma Bangsa, academic year 2015/2016?

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E. The Objective of the Study

In line with the problem formulated above, the objective of this study is to describe the relationship between critical thinking skill and argumentative writing skill at the twelfth grade students of SMA Kharisma Bangsa, academic year 2015/2016.

F. The Significance of the Study

This study is aimed to describe the relationship between critical thinking skill and argumentative writing skill. The result of this study is expected to be useful for:

1. Students

The result of this research will be useful for the students, especially students of SMA Kharisma Bangsa, to give some information about their critical thinking skill and writing skill. Hopefully, it can be the reflection of them, so that they can improve their skills in writing argumentative.

2. Teachers

The result of the study can give information to the teacher about the students‟ ability in writing in correlation with students‟ critical thinking. The teacher can improve their teaching and learning writing process through some media and method that can help students improves their critical thinking and their writing skill, the skill of argumentative writing in particular.

3. Other Researchers

The result of this research will be useful for other researchers who will conduct the research in the same field. It can be a consideration as well as a recommendation of the other research in case they will carry out any further research in the same field.

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CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

In order to sharpen the theoretical framework of this study, this chapter is devoted to review some relevant theories and studies concerning with some references about the concept of critical thinking ability and the concept of writing, especially argumentative writing. In this chapter also reveals some previous related studies that have been done by other researchers as well as the hypotheses of the research.

A. The Concept of Critical Thinking 1. The Definition of Critical Thinking

Definitions of the concept of critical thinking are broad. The definitions range from multiple perspectives: philosophical, psychological and educational.1 Some of definitions given by experts are sometimes different. However, it is important to gather the various definitions to construct the definition of critical thinking.

Critical thinking can be defined as “the ability to identify and analyse problems as well as seek and evaluate relevant information in order to reach an appropriate conclusion”.2 Good conclusion can be reached by identifiying, analyzing, and evaluating the matter issues. Critical thinking is also called as “reasonable thinking”. It means that having good and logical reason is the major characteristic of critical thinking skill needed when drawing conclusion or making decision.

Paul and Elder define critical thinking as “the art of analyzing and evaluating thinking with a view to improving it”.3 In line with Paul and Elder

Farahnaz Rimani Nikou, Alireza Bonyadi, and Negin Amirikar. Investigating the Relationship between Critical Thinking Skills and the Quality of Iranian Intermediate TEFL

Students‟ Writing, Journal of Australian International Academic Centre, Vol. 6. No. 2, 2015.

Watson and Glaser, The Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (W-GCTA), (London: Pearson Education Ltd., 2012), p. 11.

Paul, R. W. & Elder, L., The Miniature Guide to Critical thinking: Concept and Tool, Foundation for Critical Thinking Press, 5th ed., 2008, p. 2.

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opinion, Freely and Steinberg describe critical thinking as “the ability to analyze, criticize, and advocate ideas; to reason inductively and deductively; and to reach factual or judgmental conclusions based on sound inferences drawn from unambiguous statements of knowledge or belief”.4

Critical thinking is about analyzing, evaluating and criticizing something (knowledge, information, problem, and issue) in order to find good conclusion and judgment.

Meanwhile, Washburn points out that critical thinking relates to the activity to criticize people or things both in terms of negative side of them that may lead to the comprehension and best judgment about them.5 Ennis claimed that critical thinking is thinking logically, reasonably and reflectively in order to decide what to believe and what to do.6

From the explanation above, it shows that critical thinking ability is a process of evaluating and analyzing the problems or some issues with logical and reasonable thinking. It means that before making decision or judgment, a critical thinker has to think critically about what should to do or believe in order to make a good and reasonable judgment and decision.

To sum up, critical thinking is the ability to think critically, reasonably, and analytically about the problem or the matter issue. Understanding cause and effect as well as evaluating information is required in order to reach good and logical interpretation from the problem or the matter issue. Such thinking is needed in every aspect of people‟ life as making decision and having problem are the part of life.

2. The Characteristic of Critical Thinker

Critical thinking as defined above is the ability to think critically, that kind of ability can be seen by someone ability in analyzing and evaluating the problems or issue. Furthermore, knowing the cause and effect, can evaluate and make argument and interpretation from the problem or the matter issue. Therefore,

Austin J. Freeley and David L. Steinberg, Argumentation and Debate: Critical Thinking for Reasoned Decision Making, (London: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2007), 12th ed., p. 2.

Phil Washburn, Vocabulary of Critical Thinking, (New York: Oxford University Press, Inc., 2010), p. 3.

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a critical thinker should have such thinking abilities. Media educator, S. Ferrett, suggests the following fifteen characteristics of a critical thinker:7

1. Ask related questions of the issues. 2. Assess statements and arguments.

3. Able to admit a lack of understanding or information. 4. Have a sense of curiosity.

5. Interested in finding new solutions.

6. Able to define clearly a set of criteria for analyzing ideas.

7. Willing to examine beliefs, assumptions, and opinions and weigh them against facts.

8. Listen carefully to others and are able to give feedback.

9. Suspend judgment until all facts have been gathered and considered 10.Look for evidence to support assumptions and beliefs.

11.Able to adjust opinions when new facts are found. 12.Look for evidence.

13.Examine problems closely.

14.Are able to reject information that is incorrect or irrelevant. 15.See that critical thinking is a lifelong process of self-assessment.

Paul and Elder, one of the leading researchers on critical thinking, mentioned some characteristic of a critical thinker as cited below:

1. find out the crucial questions and problems, and clearly formulating them; 2. collect and evaluate relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it

effectively;

3. after finding well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, then testing them against relevant criteria and standards;

4. having open minded thought by recognizing and assessing with their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences; and

5. find out the solutions of the complex problems by effectively discussing it with other.8

S. Ferrett. Peak Performance. Cited in GED 20902: Online Professional Development, 1997, Retrieved from: http://www.ket.org/ged2002/critical/cr3. htm.

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From the characteristics mentioned above, it can be drawn a conclusion that a good critical thinker must have the ability to evaluate information, examine and analyze the evidence, as well as think open mindedly. A cultivated critical thinker could be expressed in the phrase “reasonable person”.9 Such person always tries to evaluate and criticize information, issue and evidence before making decision, judgment as well as conclusion.

3. The Kinds of Critical Thinking Skill

Critical thinking includes the component skills of analyzing arguments, making inferences, judging or evaluating, and making decisions or solving problems. Such skill has many levels of thinking as cited by Teys that critical thinking can be devided into two categories, namely lower order thinking and higher order thinking. Lower order thinking skills or basic skills covers many skills such as memorizing, summarizing, labelling, observing, and sorting. Meanwhile, higher order skills as usually called as comprehension skills include application, synthesis, making inference, comparison/contrast, justification, analysis, evaluation, moral reasoning, and using inductive and deductive reasoning.10

Meanwhile, Benjamin S. Bloom proposes six categories of thinking as usually called as “Bloom Taxonomy”. The taxonomy includes these categories: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. The first two categories, knowledge and comprehension, are regarded as lower order thinking which do not require critical thinking but the last four categories which are include application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, require the higher order thinking or critical thinking. Here, is the table of Bloom taxonomy for the clear explanation:

Paul and Elder, op. cit., p. 2.

David Hunter, A Practical Guide to Critical Thinking: Deciding What to Do and Believe, (Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2009), p. 3.

Wanda Teys, Second Thoughts: Critical Thinking for a Diverse Society, (New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2006), 3rd edition, p. 3.

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Table 2.1 Bloom Taxonomy11

NO Categories Definition

1. Knowledge memorizing facts, figures, and basic processes

2. Comprehension understanding and illustrating the facts and knowledge

3. Application generalizing or applying the facts to other contexts and situations

4. Analysis understanding why the facts are the way they are; breaking down the problems

5. Synthesis making connections between different elements on one‟s own and try to combine them

6. Evaluation critically using one‟s knowledge to ascertain the quality of information

Based on Table 2.1 above, it shows that the first and the second categories of thinking are basic or lower order thinking. It is about understanding the knowledge and the fact. Therefore, the higher and critical thinking ability is not required. While, the third until the sixth categories are higher order thinking activity involve application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. Consequently, the higher thinking ability as usually called as critical thinking ability is needed in those thinking activities. However, using the higher order skills or critical thinking skill requires both knowledge and comprehension of the content or fact; therefore, all levels of thinking should be encouraged.

Meanwhile, based on Ruggiero, there are 3 basics of thinking, they are investigation, interpretation, and judgement. For the further explanation, we can see the table below:

Bloom BS, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals, (New York: David McKay Company Inc., 1956), p.130.

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Table 2.2

The Activity of Critical Thinking12

No. Activity Definition Requirements

1. Investigation

finding the evidence such as data that will be the answer key of the

questions about the issue

The relevant and adequate evidence is must.

2. Interpretation

deciding what the meaning is of the evidence

the interpretation must be more reasonable than competing interpretations

3. Judgement determining a conclusion about the matter issue

the conclusion must meet the test of logic

Based on Table 2.2 above, the critical thinking encompasses the activity of investigation which is the activity to find the evidence such as data or fact in order to solve the issue, the activity of interpretation which is the activity to decide the evidence meaning, and the activity of judgment, this is the activity of drawing the conclusion about the matter issue. All of the three activities stated above are the basic of critical thinking activities.

In conclusion, the ability of critical thinking can be seen in many kinds of thinking activities. Those thinking activities are investigating, analyzing, judging, evaluating and etc. Some of thinking activities require lower thinking skills, while some needs higher level of thinking that it usually called as critical thinking.

4. The Benefits of Critical Thinking Skill

Critical thinking skill is very useful in human life, particularly in this modern era. Thinking critically can help people be easier to face their life. The ability to think clearly, critically and rationally is crucial as those ability are

Vincent Ryan Ruggiero, Beyond Feelings: A Guide to Critical Thinking, (New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2004), p. 21.

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needed in making decision, solving problems or evaluating some issues that cannot be separated from human life. Critical thinking skill is obviously indispensable used in many fields such as in education, research, finance, social, politics, management or other aspects of life.

Moreover, critical thinking is valuable for two main reasons as stated by David Hunter. First, thinking critically increases knowledge. Second, thinking critically is essential to being autonomous. It means that by thinking critically can make up someone‟s own mind about what to believe or what to do, which is essential to.13

According to Paul and Elder, there are some benefits of critical thinking as mentioned below:

a. Bringing a clear and accurate formulation of vital questions and problems b. Having an effective interpretation of ideas and information

c. Making reasonable conclusions and solutions which are in accordance with relevant criteria and standards

d. Thinking inclusively or open minded

e. Having an effective communication with others in coping with complex problem.14

Meanwhile, Cottrell quoted some benefits of critical thinking ability as stated below:

a. The work can be conducted accurately and carefully

b. The ability to determine something which is relavant in writing (nothing) can be more accurate and specific

c. The ability to conduct the problem solving and project management can be done accurately

d. It can raise feeling of confident of succesful outcome in complex problems and project.

e. The work and academic attainment can be better improved.15

Hunter, op. cit., p. 6.

Paul and Elder, loc. cit.

Stella Cottrell, Critical Thinking Skills: Developing Effective Analysis and Argument, (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), p. 4.

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To sum up, the ability of critical thinking is obviously beneficial for the people because it is used in many aspects of people life such as in workplace, education, politic or social life. Having critical thinking ability can help people solve the problem carefully and accurately. Most importantly, people can make reasonable conclusions and solutions from the issues arise.

5. Critical Thinking Test

Critical thinking is an ability or skill that can be assessed by CT test instruments. The test instrument used depends on which type of thinking skills are to be tested. CT test instruments will measure different thinking skills and will categorize each of these tests into multiple test categories. Each test is vary, depending on the type of categories that being tested. There are many exmples of CT test instruments, namely:

1. Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (W-GCTA)

The Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (W-GCTA) is a psychometric test of critical thinking and reasoning. It was developed by Watson and Glaser. It measures skills related to problem solving and decision making in a variety question types. The W-GCTA measures the fundamental cognitive ability of critical thinking. It tests for five critical thinking skills: inference, recognition of assumptions, deduction, interpretation, and evaluation of arguments.16

2. Cornell Critical Thinking Test

The Cornell Critical Thinking Test (CCTT) is an exam that helps teachers to determine the critical thinking abilities of their students. First developed in 1985 by Robert Ennis. The Cornell Critical Thinking Test series offers two levels of testing: level X is used for grades five through twelve and level Z is used for grades ten through twelve. The tests may also be used at the college level as well. Level X includes the following skills: induction, deduction, credibility, identification of assumptions. Level Z includes the skills in Level X (induction, deduction, credibility, identification of

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assumptions), plus; semantics, definition, prediction in planning experiments.17

3. California Critical Thinking Skills Test (CCTST)

The California Critical Thinking Test (CCTST) is administered by Insight Assessment. The CCTST has been used in many countries such as USA and in authorized translations worldwide countries. The CCTST targets the core critical thinking skills: analysis, interpretation, inference, evaluation, and explanation. Several scores are generated by the CCTST as follows: total score; inductive and deductive reasoning, and sub-scale scores; sub-scale scores relating to the categories of analysis, inference, and evaluation. The CCTST can be used for learning outcomes assessment, performance funding, program evaluation, professional development, training, and as an element in application, admissions, and personnel evaluation processes. 18

4. The Ennis-Weir Critical Thinking Essay Test

The test was created by R. H. Ennis and E. Weir from Midwest Publications. It is aimed to measure CT skill at grades 7 through college. Also intended to be used as a teaching material. Incorporates getting the point, seeing the reasons and assumptions, stating one‟s point, offering good reasons, seeing other possibilities (including other possible explanations), and responding to and avoiding irrelevance, reversal of in a relationship, overgeneralization, credibility problems, and the use of emotive language to persuade.19

Test instruments that are used to measure critical thinking skills typically require the student to read and evaluate statements that measure various aspects of thinking ability include investigation, analysis, evaluation

R. H. Ennis, Millman, J. & Tomko, T. N., Cornell Critical Thinking Tests Level X and Level Z Manual, (CA: Midwest Publications, 1985), 3rd ed., p. 3—10.

www.insightassessment.com

R. H. Ennis, Suplement to the Test/Ennis Critical Thinking Test. Retrieved from: http://faculty.education.illinois.edu/rhennis/supplewmanual1105.htm

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and argumentation. From these measures, it is hoped that the quality or the level of the student's critical thinking can be determined.

B. The Concept of Writing 1. Nature of Writing

Writing is one of the major skills in English considered as active or productive skills. Writing is the way to communicate to the other through written symbol. In writing, the writer needs to express the idea in the mind to the paper or any other kinds of writing tool which is readable. As Browne stated writing is a complex activity involving many skills to determine ideas and to transfer the ideas onto a piece of a paper clearly and comprehensibly for the reader.20

Another definition was given by Olsthain as quoted by Murcia viewing writing as an act of communication suggests an interactive process which takes place between the writer and the reader via text.21 It means that in written communication, both the writer and the reader have significant role on which the writer acts as an informant, while the reader acts as the receiver.

Based on the explanation above, it can be conclude that writing is an activity to transfer or to communicate the idea in someone„s mind to other through the process of writing. Through writing, they can also transfer information and knowledge to others. In other words, writing can be said as a mean of communication between the writer and the reader. Additionally, Writing is different from other skills because except language skills, it needs other skills such as knowledge and the ability to analyze and synthesize the idea.

2. Writing Process

Writing is not an activity that can be done only in once activity, but it needs some steps that should be passed by the writer. As Langan quoted that “writing is a process of discovery involving a series steps and those steps are very

Ann Browne, Teaching and Learning communication, Language and Literacy, (London: Paul Chapman Publishing, 2007), p. 81.

Celce-Murcia, Marianne, Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language, (Boston: Thomson Learning Inc, 2001), p. 207.

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often a zigzag journey”.22 It means that the process of writing is often complicated and need time to reach the final draft because each stage has its own difficulty and complexity as well as its own significance and goal. Therefore, in order to write effectively and correctly, each process should be conducted carefully.

There are many steps of writing process as proposed by some experts. The process of writing is mainly depend on the reader, the purpose, the content and the situation in which the writer composing writing.23 Dietsch proposes the stages of writing into 4 steps as follow:

1. Prewriting

This is the first stage of writing. In this stage the writer produces some ideas and decides the purpose and the reader of the writing.

2. Drafting

Drafting is primarily a stage of discovery and exploration. This stage requires the writers to transform ideas into sentences in semi organized manner. The aim is to let the writers‟ ideas develop, expand and build connection.

3. Revision

Revising is the activity of deleting, expanding and clarifying the ideas. Revising can be done during all the process of writing.

4. Editing/ proofreading

In this stage requires examining ideas, details, words, grammar, and punctuation. Here the emphasis is on accuracy, correctness and clarity. 24 Meanwhile, Oshima and Hogue state that the process of writing consists of four steps, those are: pre-writing, organizing, writing a draft and the last is

John Langan , College Writing Skills, (New York: McGraw- Hill Companies, 2007), 6th Edition, p. 13.

Kristine Brown and Susan Hood, Writing Matter: Writing Skills and Strategies for Students of English, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 6.

Betty Mattix Dietsch, Reasoning and Writing Well: A Rhetoric, Research Guide, Reader and Handbook, (New York: McGraw-Hill Company, 2006), 4th edition, p. 11.

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polishing the draft by editing and revising.25 The various processes of writing need various skills to meet the aims in a writing activity. Another opinion was given by Keith Miller. He suggests three steps of writing as follow:

1. Drafting

Drafting means writing preliminary version of a work that the writers will later revised their work. In this stage, the writer puts his/her ideas on paper so that he/she can work with them.

2. Revising

Revising is seeing again or taking another look. Appraising the content, checking the organization, refining the style in order to see what work and what might need changing.

3. Editing

Editing is the stage on which the spelling, mechanics and punctuation are rechecked again.26

Moreover, Harmers suggest 4 elements for the process of writing which called “the process of wheel” as described in the figure below:

Figure 2.1

The Writing Process Wheel27

Alice Oshima and Ann Hogue, Introduction to Academic writing, (New York: Pearson Education, Inc., 2007), 3rd edition, p. 15.

Robert Keith Miller, Motives for Writing, (New York: McGraw- Hill Company, 2006), 5th edition, pp. 27—34.

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The figure above shows that all of the arrows lead to the final version. It means that we can bring out the final version after passing through the three processes, namely; planning, drafting and editing. Planning which is also sometimes called as pre-writing is the stage where the writer collecting the ideas of writing through brainstorming, clustering, and the like. Meanwhile, drafting is the stage where writer puts ideas and information into paper. The last step is editing or revising. Here, the writer produces the final version. Checking grammar and spelling accuracies, punctuations, and word choices usually becomes the main task to be done at this stage.

In conclusion, producing good writing needs some processes that should be followed by the writer. The process is varying and sometimes different depending on the writer. Those processes are planning, drafting, editing and revising. By following the process can help the writer writes easily, effectively and systematically.

3. The Purpose of Writing

Different people have different aims in writing. Different form of writing (descriptive, argumentative, narrative and etc.) also has each own goal. Some people write in order to communicate to the other such as writing email or memo; while, some people write with the goal is to entertain like writing novel or story. Generally, people write based on their need and their goal, as stated by Langan; “when you write for others, it is crucial to know both your purpose for writing and the audience who will read your work”.28 It means that understanding the goal and the reader is important in order to transfer our ideas properly.

There are various forms in writing and each form has its own purpose. For example, exposition writing is the genre of writing that the purpose is to explain or inform the reader. Persuasive writing seeks to convince the reader of a particular position or opinion;while, the purpose of descriptive writing is to describe or picture something in words.

Jeremy Harmer, How to Teach Writing, (London: Pearson Education Limited, 2004), p. 6.

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Basically, the purposes of writing are to inform, to entertain and to persuade. Ann Browne mentioned 8 purposes of writing include: to entertain, to persuade, to express feelings, to inform, to request, to instruct, to record, and to express opinions and ideas. Meanwhile, Keith Miller gives 6 different purposes of writing as included in his book, Motives for Writing, they are:

1. Writing to understand experience 2. Writing to report information 3. Writing to evaluate something 4. Writing to analyze image 5. Writing to analyze texts 6. Writing to persuade others 7. Writing to amuse others 8. Writing to inspire other

9. Writing to experiment with a form29

To be concluded, what and how the writer write mostly depends on the audience and the purpose of writing. By knowing the goal of writing, the message that the writer wants to share can be received by the reader properly. Moreover, understanding the goal can help the writer organize the idea appropriately.

4. Characteristic of Good Writing

When we produce or compose something, we can judge whether our product good or not, in writing as well, some have good quality, some do not have. Good writing is much more than just correct writing. It is writing that has good content as well as free from error. Moreover, words, grammar, ideas, phrase used in the writing generally contains more information rather than in conversation because the writer has time in organizing it.30

Furthermore, Hairston mentions 6 characteristics of good writing as presented detail as follow:

_{Miller, op. cit., p. 34.} 30

James J. Raymond, Writing: Is an Unnatural Act, (New York: Harper& Row Publisher, 1980), p. 8.

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a. Significant

A writing which is considered as significant work is if it can fulfill the readers‟ need. In this case, not only they can enjoy as they read it but also they can learn something from it.

b. Clear

A clear writing provide an apparent depiction or explanation to the readers that lead them not to reread it many times to get its point or idea.

c. Unified and Well Organized

Unified and well organized writing is developed coherntly. Each sentence in a paraghraph develops or supports the main idea of the paragraph and connects to sentences preceding and following it. In other words, it develops with a logical squance.

d. Economical

Wordiness is not found in an economical writing; in this case, a writer conveys and expresses his/her ideas directly to the point.

e. Adequetly Develop

An adequately developed writing makes the readers to read easily for it is provided and supported with key points that enable them to understand it well f. Gramatically Acceptable

Mistake or error (in terms of usage and mechanics) are not found as the writing is gramatically acceptable because the standard or formal language and appropriate punctuation as well as spelling are applied and employed well.31

From the explanation above, it can be interpreted that good writing is the writing which the idea is clear, understanable, and coherence. Words and phrase selectively used to make the writing more beautiful and understandable. In addition, good writing should have good punctuation, capitalization, grammar and organization so that it is readable for the reader. Those criteria cannot be neglected because all of those are essential to construct a piece of good writing.

Maxine Hairstone, Contemporary Composition Short Edition, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1986), pp. 5—10.

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5. Writing Assessment

Assessment is important in writing; writing assessment refers to the assessment conducted towards writing product. In other word, Assessment means making judgment towards writing product whether it is good or not, correct or wrong. It evaluates and judges the quality of writing by using assessment methods and appropriate criteria.

There are several ways to assess writing. The most common method is to use some sort of rubric. Items on the rubric range from the contents, organization until the mechanical aspect. Other forms of writing assessment include checklists or rating scale.

In assessing writing there are several criteria that can be evaluated, for instance, content, and organization of the idea, punctuation as well as language used in writing. Sara Cushing Weigle in her book, Assesing Writing, wrote 5 criteria of writing assessment, namely:

1. Content

The content of writing should be relevant with the topic of writing. Most importantly, the idea must be clear and understandable.

2. Vocabulary

To be a writer, they should be able to use the vocabulary correctly. The vocabulary chosen should be appropriate and easy to understand by the reader.

3. Usage

The grammatical is one of the essential parts in writing because the grammar error can cause the reader misunderstanding of the content and the meaning of the text. Therefore, good grammar is obviously important to be assessed. 4. Organization

Well organized (idea, coherence, cohesive) is essential in writing. Ideas must be clear, supported and organized.

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5. Mechanics

Punctuation, capitalization, spelling and paragraphing are the criteria in mechanics of writing.32

The criteria mentioned above are important in writing that should not be ignored in assessing writing. Those criteria have their own sub categories to be assessed.

To sum up, many ways and methods that can be used to assess writing such as using assessment rubric, rating scale, checklist and etc. Those instruments can be modified with the criteria of assessment based on the rater want and what aspect wants to be assessed. The instrument chosen should be able to evaluate and assess the writing correctly, reliably and responsibly. More importantly, credible rater is must to result reliable judgment.

6. Argumentative Writing

Argumentative writing is a genre of writing that allows writers to express their opinion on a topic and support that opinion with strong logic and evidence.33 The main purpose of argumentative writing is to convince the readers that the writer‟ particular view or opinion on a controversial issue is correct and to persuade the audience to take some sort of action. 34 In argumentative writing, a writer attempts to support or defend a position or difference point on with his/ her logical arguments, idea and opinion.

In order to convince the audience in an argumentation essay, it is important to provide them with a clear main point and plenty of logical evidence. In writing argumentative, there are some strategies to convince the readers with writers‟ words. Langan gives five strategies for argumentation:

a. use tactful, courteous language b. point out common ground

c. acknowledge differing viewpoints

Sara Cushing Weigle, Assessing Writing, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 116.

Suzanne Sweat, Argumentative Essay: Definition, Format & Examples, retrieved from: http://study.com/academy/lesson/argumentative-essay-definition-format-examples.html

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d. grant the merits of differing viewpoint e. rebut differing viewpoints35

By following the strategies above, the writer can result a good argumentative essay. According to Moore and Parker, good argumentative writing consists of 4 parts as stated below: 36

A good of argumentative essay consist of 4 parts: a statement of the issue, a statement of one‟s position on that issue, argument that support one‟s position, and rebuttals of arguments that support contrary position. Obviously, argumentative essay is weakened by statement that are obscure.

For the explanation above, it seems that statement is a vital component in argumentative writing. Statements express the writer position on the issue. Therefore, the statement given should come from both sides (support and contrary position). Moreover, the writer should provide strong and logic statements.

In conclusion, argumentative writing is the writing that consists of some argument and the opinion of the writer. In argumentative writing, some data, example and other‟s opinion are needed in order to support the argument. Good argumentation is required because it can help the writer easily convince and persuade the reader. Therefore, the writer should truly know the issue, his/her position, knowledge in order to give good argumentation.

7. Elements of Argumentative Essay

Argumentative writing is different from other genre of writing- narrative, descriptive, exposition- because it has different requirement and different format in conducting the writing. In argumentative writing, there are some elements that must be included in the text, thus, by understanding the crucial elements in argument essays will enable the writer to construct arguments that are more logical and ultimately write more persuasively.

Ibid., pp. 320—322.

Brooke Noel Moore and Richard Parker, Critical Thinking, (New York: McGraw-Hill Companies. Inc., 2007), 8th ed., p. 42.

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Basically, there are 3 elements of Argumentative writing that should not be ignored, namely:

1. Thesis Statement

Thesis statement is the most important part in argumentative writing. Thesis statement is usually in one sentence at the end of the introductory paragraph that summarizes our argument. A thesis statement should be clear and direct, arguing for a specific action or point of view and presenting clear reasons to support that argument.

2. Organization

Organization is crucial component in argumentative writing. The organization of argumentative writing includes introduction with a thesis statement, body paragraphs and a conclusion.

3. Transition

Transition is important to connect and to oppose the arguments that appear in argumentative writing. Effective transitions connect ideas and evidence without simply stating the contents of each paragraph.37

Those elements mentioned above are not the whole elements of argumentative writing, but those are the main elements that cannot be disregarded. Thesis statement, organization and transition are needed in order to build good argumentative writing.

8. Factors Influencing Argumentative Writing

Argumentative writing is a complex process, which is influenced by a number of linguistic, cognitive, and social factors. The factors affecting the process of argumentative writing are explained detail as follow:

a. Language Competencies

Language competencies include mastery in grammar, vocabulary, word order, article are the main factors affecting writers in writing, particularly in

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argumentative writing. It is because language is a main tool in writing. Good writers are capable to use language appropriately and effectively in writing.

b. Background Knowledge

Knowledge is important in writing because the writer mostly write based on their background knowledge. Knowledge can be reached by reading book, listening others‟ stories, writer‟ own experience and many other sources. More importantly, writers often write best when they have experience or knowledge about the topic they are familiar with. As Angelove claimed that the quality of the written product seems to be affected mostly by the students‟ knowledge and use of lexical cohesive devices, their metacognitive knowledge.38

c. Critical Thinking Skill

Argumentative writing is thinking process because the writer should analyze, evaluate the issue or problem, gives their ideas and argument and then, presents it in logical text. Therefore, composing argumentative writing is not easy for some certain people. People who have high critical thinking skill, they tend to have good argumentative writing. It is because argumentative writing is a manifestation of critical thinking skill. As Fahim and Mirzaii argue that the ability to write argumentatively depends on the students‟ critical thinking skill.39 in line with Fahim and Mirzai, Ruggiero adds that “Critical thinking is needed to produce good ideas— is unconcerned with correctness or reasonableness, which can stifle the flow of ideas; and it refuses to discriminate against any idea.”40

d. Writer Culture or Social Life

Writers‟ culture and social life are also the factors influencing their argumentative writing. The ways they see the issue and the problem happened

Maria Angelova, An exploratory study of factors affecting the process and product of writing in English as a Foreign Language, General - Arts and Humanities Language and linguistics, 2013 Rretrived from: http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/ER/subject/hkul/400/co/1

Fahim and Mirzai, loc. cit.

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around them depend on their life. Different people who have different culture, social life, background; they have their own characteristic and style in writing.

Factors influencing argumentative writing mentioned above are not the whole. There still many factors affecting argumentative writing but not exactly significant as the factors stated above.

9. The Role of Thinking in Writing

Composing writing not only needs good language proficiency, but also needs to be critical as the writer examines viewpoints, facts and arguments and synthesize them. Langan pointed that “writing is more than a medium of communication. It is a way of remembering and a way of thinking as well. Writing makes words permanent, thus expands the collective memory of human beings from the relatively small store that we can remember”.41 _{It means that}

when we write we use our thinking to find the idea while remembering pattern and language.

Ruggiero stated that “writing is not confined to one stage of the composing process. At one stage you will think creatively, producing imaginative ideas or ways of expressing those ideas. At another stage you will think critically, evaluating the results of your creative thinking”.42 In every stage of writing, we use our thinking to create, to investigate and to revise the idea.

Furthemore, writing can improve critical thinking skill. “Writing make you stronger thinker. Writing reasoned paragraphs requires mental discipline and close attention to the set of logical rules. It will train you mind to think clearly and prove to be a value in every phase of your life”.43 While through writing can improve critical thinking, critical thinking is important to produce good writing.

To sum up, writing is important to improve thinking skills such as critical and creative thinking. In similiarity, critical thinking skill is also crucial in

James C. Raymond, Writing: is an Unnatural Act, (New York: Harper and Row Publisher, 1980), p. 2.

Ruggiero, op. cit., p. 4.

John Langan, English Skills, (New York: McGraw- Hill Higher Education, 2007), 7th edition, p. 10.

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composing writing. It is because each process of writing requires some thinking skills. Therefore, without being able to think and also write critically, the writers can not result a piece of good writing.

C. Relevant Previous Studies

Many studies have been conducted to study about critical thinking in the ESL and EFL learning area in Indonesia and other countries. Many of them investigated about the correlation between critical thinking ability and language profeciency as well as writing ability. This part will refer to some of them:

The first research which the title is The Effect of Critical Thinking on Enhancing Writing among the Iranian EFL Learners was conducted by Nader Assadi, Hanief Davatgar, and Parinaz Jafari. It was conducted in private English language institute in Tabriz, Iran. It was carried out to find out whether critical thinking has effects on learners‟ writing. The participants of the study were 60 students whose proficiency level was intermediate. The participants of the research were equally divided randomly into two groups (control and experimental group). The researcher gave some treatments with the successful critical thinking strategies over three weeks instructions to the experimental group; whereas, they did not give any special treatments to the control group. The result of the study showed that critical thinking instruction had effects on learners‟ writing, in the case; it showed that the participants from the experimental group had the higher scores in post-test than the control group.44

The next research was conducted by Rosyaty Abdul Rashid and Rosna Awang Hashim which entitles The Relationship between Critical Thinking and Language Proficiency of Malaysian Undergraduates. The study was conducted to find out the critical thinking ability of Malaysian undergraduates and its relationship with their language proficiency. It was conducted in Universiti utara Malaysia of which total participants were 280 undergraduates taken from the university. The instruments used in the study were demographic questionnaire

Nader Assadi, Hanieh Davatgar, and Parinaz Jafari, The Effect of Critical Thinking on Enhancing Writing among Iranian EFL Learners, International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research, 4, 2013.

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and test. The demographic questionnaire was intended to gain and to collect the undergraduates‟ language proficiency data—encompassing speaking, reading, writing and grammar; whereas, the test was conducted to find out the undergraduates‟ critical thinking ability. Based on the finding of this research, it was found that there was a significant correlation between undergraduates‟ critical thinking ability and their language proficiency.45

Another research was conducted by Ahmad Sugianto, entitles The Relationship between Critical Thinking Ability and Writing Ability, A Correlational Study of the Sixth Semester Students of State Islamic University, Jakarta. This research was conducted in State Islamic University, Jakarta- Indonesia. 60 students from the sixth semester of English Education Department participated in this study. This study aimed to find out whether or not there is any significance relationship between critical thinking ability and writing ability. The study used correlational design which carried out two kinds of instruments, they are; Critical Thinking test and writing test. The data was analyzed using Pearson Product Moment correlation which the research finding showed that there is a significant correlation between students‟ critical thinking ability and the writing ability of the students of English education department of UIN Jakarta.46

In comparison with the previous related studies above, this study has some similarity since it has the same independent variable (critical thinking ability). However; there are some differences among each other. This study is more specific and detail than other investigations conducted by other researchers. The first research above investigated whether or not critical thinking had relationship with language proficiency; while this research focused on investigating the correlation between critical thinking and writing skills. The

Rosyati Abdul Rashid and Rosna Awang Hasyim, The Relationship between Critical Thinking and Language Proficiency of Malaysian Undergraduates, Edu- COM 2008 International Conference, 2008, pp. 373—384.

Ahmad Sugianto, The Relationship between Critical Thinking Ability and Writing Ability, A Skripsi Presented to the Faculty of Tarbiyaa and Teachers’ Trining in UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, Jakarta, 2014, pp. 24—26, Not Published.

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writing skills that was been scrutinized was argumentative writing. Therefore, this research is really new and different from the other research.

D. Conceptual Framework

Argumentative writing is one of writing skills considered as the most difficult among other writing skills. Thus, it is not easy to do for some certain people. Composing argumentative writing needs some process and practice in order to be able to write effectively and correctly. The processes of writing include; planning, drafting, revising and editing. Each stage of the writing is important and has each own role and goal.

Basically, the goal of argumentative writing is to convince and to persuade the reader. Therefore, in order to be able to convince the reader, it needs the writer‟s argument, opinion as well as his/her views points of the matter issue/problem. Arguments and opinion given should have logic reason; it also has to be proven by some evidence, data as well as others‟ opinion. This is way composing argumentative writing requires many other skills than other.

The ability of critical thinking is one of the skills needed in composing argumentative writing. It is because argumentative writing is considered to be a manifestation of critical thinking skills, since a writer needs to analyse, evaluate and synthesize arguments, ideas or opinion and present it into logical and reasonable text. Critical thinking is analytical thinking. It means that the ability of analyzing and evaluating are one of many skills of critical thinking.

The role of critical thinking is indispensable in composing argumentative writing. The relationship between those skills seems to be equal and parallel. It means that if writers have good critical thinking skill, they are supposed to have good ability in argumentative writing. Meanwhile, if the writers lack of the ability to think critically, they are supposed to have poor argumentative writing skill.

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E. Research Hypotheses

This study proposes two hypotheses as follow:

1. Research hypothesis ( ): There is a significant relationship between critical thinking skill and argumentative writing skill of the twelfth grade students of SMA Kharisma Bangsa, academic year 2015/2016.

2. The null hypothesis ( ): There is no significant relationship between critical thinking skill and argumentative writing skill of the twelfth grade students of SMA Kharisma Bangsa, academic year 2015/2016.

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CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter describes the research methodology including the period on which the study was conducted, the number of participant of this study, the instruments of the study as well as the way administrating those instruments. The procedure of collecting and analyzing the data were also included. These are clearly presented in time and place of the study, research design, population and sample, research instruments, technique of collecting the data and technique of data analysis.

A. Time and Place of the Study

The study was carried out from July to August 2015 in SMA Kharisma Bangsa which is located in Jl. Terbang Layang No. 21, Pamulang, East Tangerang, Banten.

B. Research Design

This study is quantitative one as the research analysis used statistical and numerical data to test the hypotheses. This study involved two variables including critical thinking skill and writing skill in term of argumentative writing.

A correlational design was used in this research. It was employed to describe and to measure the relationship between two variables covering an independent variable (critical thinking skill) and a dependent variable (argumentative writing skill) by using correlational analysis.

According to Creswell, “A correlation is a statistical test to determine the tendency or pattern for two or more variables or two set of data to vary constantly. In the case of two variables it means that two variables share common variance, or they co-vary together‖.1 In addition, correlational research involves collecting data to determine whether and in what degree of relations is expressed as a correlation

John. W. Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, (Boston: Pearson Education Inc., 2012), 4th ed., p. 338.

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coefficient.2 This design was used to find out the relation between two variables or more and to see the influence of each other. In this case, this design was employed to seek the relation between critical thinking skill and argumentative writing skill.

C. Population and Sample

The population of this study was twelfth grade students of SMA Kharisma Bangsa, academic year 2015/2016, included 68 students from 4 Classes. From the population, 35 students were chosen as the participants of this study.

The sample of this study were 35 students that had been selected. The sample was determined by using purposive sampling technique. Purposive sampling technique means taking sample based on the certain purpose. Two classes were determined as the partcipants of this study based on the avarage ability both have. In this case, 35 students from XII A and XII C class were selected and being the subjects of this study. In addition, those students were chosen because they had already learnt argumentative essay.

D. Research Instruments

In this study, there were two instruments to collect the data which were administered to the participants (students of SMA Kharisma Bangsa). The instruments were critical thinking test which attempt to measure students critical thinking skill, and an instruction asking the students to write argumentative essay which is used to measure students argumentative writing skill. Those instruments were used in order to achieve the goal of the study; to find out the correlation between those variables. Here, is the specific information of the research instruments:

1. Critical Thinking Test

The critical thinking test used in this research was Cornell Critical Thinking Test series. The CCTT is a standardized test developed by R. Ennis, Millman, and Tomko in 1980. In this study, level X was chosen as the instrument

L. R. Gay, Geoffrey E. Mills and Peter Airasian, Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Applications, (London: Pearson Education Ltd., 2009), 9th ed., p. 196.

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to measure the students’ critical thinking skill as the samples of this study were twelfth grade students. This test was considered suitable to be used in the present study because it is claimed by its developers to be a general critical thinking test which attempts to measure the critical thinking skills as a whole and it is best used for grade 9 to 12. Level X includes the following skills: induction, deduction, credibility, and identification of assumptions (see the instrument in Appendix 1). Moreover, the test has been widely used throughout the world more than twenty years to measure critical thinking skill. Additionlly, level X was chosen by several researchers (Rosyanti and Rosna Awang: 2008, Rozaidi Ismail: 2003) to measure students critical thinking skills.

The CCTT was already being tested in the term of validity and reliability. The developers argue for the construct validity of the CCTT based on its content validity. The test was developed based on a sound rationale and that the test items were intensively discussed by the test developers who were scholars involved in the Illinois Critical Thinking Project. Meanwhile, the developers claimed that the reliability coefficient of the CCTT Level X ranges from .67 to .90.3

2. Instruction to write Argumentative Essay

This test was conducted to measure the students’ argumentative writing skill. There were three topics given to develop by the students (see the instrument in Appendix 2). The topics were adopted from the students textbook (Aim High 6 and Contextual English).

In assessing writing, the assessment rubric which was adopted from the book entitled Assessing Writing was applied in this study. It was developed by Jacob et al, and cited by Sara Cushing Weigle in her book. There were five categories to be assessed include; content, organization, vocabulary, mechanic and usage (see the assessment rubric in appendix 3).

To validate this scoring scheme, two raters were asked to analyze the proposed components, as well as the sub-components. Then, they were required to

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score the students argumentative writing by using assessment rubric. The raters were the English teachers of SMA Kharisma Bangsa and the researcher herself.

E. Technique of Data Collection

Before collecting the data the researcher rechecked to make sure that the students were ready to do the test. The first test that was being administered was critical thinking test and continued by argumentative writing test.

1. The Steps of Critical Thinking Test

a. Firstly, the participants were asked to fill out the name, date of birth, grade and students’ number in the answer sheet.

b. The participants were asked to read the direction of the test

c. The researcher explained the direction of the test and how to answer the test. After the participants were ready, the test was started and the researcher supervised the test took place.

d. The participants had to finish 71 questions of critical thinking test in 50 minutes.

e. After the participants completed the test, the participants’ answers were scored and the results were analyzed.

2. The Steps of Argumentative Writing Test

a. The writing test was conducted in the same day directly after the participants finished the critical thinking test.

b. Firstly, the participants were asked to fill out the name, date of birth, grade and students’ number in the answer sheet.

c. The participants were asked to read the direction and the scoring criteria of the test.

d. The participants were free to choose one from the 3 topics given.

e. The students were asked to write argumentative essay in 30 minutes with the length of the essay was at least 250 words.

f. After the participants finished the writing test, their writings were scored and the results were analyzed by using assessment rubric.

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� a + bX

F. Technique of Data Analysis

After the data of students’ critical thinking skill and argumentative writing skill had been collected, the scores of the two tests were analyzed to determine whether there was correlation or not between two variables covered in this study. At the end, this analysis could be useful to examine the truth or false of this study hypotheses. In this study, the parameter statistic was used to calculate the data. Therefore, as the requirement in the parameter statistic in correlation research, the linearity and normality distribution of the data had to be examined first.

1. Test of Linearity

Linearity test aimed to determine whether the two variables significantly had a linear relationship or not. This test was used as a prerequisite in the analysis of correlation. The formula is as follow:

Regression line a = a regression b = b regression

Moreover, to find out the regression line, the variance analysis table (ANOVA) was used in this study.

2. Test of Normality

Testing normality was employed to check whether the population had normal distribution or not. The formula of normality test is as follow4:

=Ʃp

-

ɸ

= value of

Ʃp = sum value of data probability ɸ = value of Kolmogorov table

To get the ɸ value, the standard score of the data (z) had to be calculated first with formula:

Budi Susetyo, Statistika untuk analysis data penelitian, (Bandung: Refika Aditama, 2010), p. 148—150.

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z = ̅ z = standard score

x = students’ score

̅ = the mean score s = standard deviation

After the value of was gotten, the value of normality table with significance 5% was sought. After the value of normality table was found, it had to be compared with the value of to find whether the data had a normal distribution or not.

3. Test of Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient

To find out the correlation between two variables, Pearson Product Moment correlation was employed. In addition, the computer software such as Microsoft Office Excel 2010 and SPSS version 18.0 were used to assist the writer in analyzing the data of this study. Here, is the formula to find the Pearson Product Moment correlation coefficient value:

∑ ∑ ∑

√[ ∑

_∑

_{] [ ∑}

_∑

_]

The descriptions of the formula above are explained as follow:

: Correlation coefficient value

N : Number or sum of the participants

∑ : Sum of X score

∑ : Sum of Y score

∑ Y : Sum of the products paired scores

Meanwhile, the hypotheses were analyzed using t-test. The t-test was used to see the score difference between the two variables: the student’s critical thinking skill and the student’s writing skill in argumentative essay. After getting

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The relationship between critical thinking skill and argument writing skill, (a correlational study at the twelfth grade students of sma kharisma bangsa)