PPT UEU Teori Perilaku Organisasi Pertemuan 3

  

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR Perception and Individual Decision Making Pertemuan 3 Muhammad Arief Prodi MIK Fakultas Ilmu-Ilmu Kesehatan What Is Perception, and Why Is It Important? What Is Perception, and Why Is It Important?

• People’s behavior is
• People’s behavior is

  People’s behavior is based on their based on their perception of what perception of what reality is, not on reality is, not on reality itself. reality itself.

• The world as it is
• The world as it is

  The world as it is perceived is the world perceived is the world that is behaviorally that is behaviorally

  People’s behavior is based on their based on their perception of what perception of what reality is, not on reality is, not on reality itself. reality itself.

  The world as it is perceived is the world perceived is the world that is behaviorally that is behaviorally important. important.

  Perception

  A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.

  

Factors That

Influence

Perception

  

Factors That

Influence

Perception

  

Person Perception: Making Judgments About

Others Person Perception: Making Judgments About Others

  Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations.

Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation.

  

Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations.

Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation.

  Attribution Theory

  When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused.

  Errors and Biases in Attributions Errors and Biases in Attributions

  Fundamental Attribution Error

  The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others.

  In general, we tend to blame the person first, not the situation. Errors and Biases in Attributions (cont’d) Errors and Biases in Attributions (cont’d)

  Self-Serving Bias

  The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors

  Thought: When student gets an “A” on an exam,

  while putting the blame for

  they often say they failures on external factors. studied hard. But when they don’t do well, how does the self serving bias come into play? Hint: Whose fault is it

  

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others

  Selective Perception

  People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.

  

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others

  Halo Effect

  Drawing a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic

  Contrast Effects

  Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that are affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics

  

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others

  Projection

  Attributing one’s own characteristics to other people.

  Stereotyping

  Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs. Specific Applications in Organizations Specific Applications in Organizations

• Employment Interview

  Perceptual biases of raters affect the accuracy of – interviewers’ judgments of applicants.

• Performance Expectations

  Pygmalion effect): The lower or

• – Self-fulfilling prophecy (

  higher performance of employees reflects preconceived leader expectations about employee capabilities.

• Ethnic Profiling

  A form of stereotyping in which a group of individuals – is singled out—typically on the basis of race or ethnicity —for intensive inquiry, scrutinizing, or investigation.

  

Specific Applications in Organizations (cont’d)

Specific Applications in Organizations (cont’d)

• Performance Evaluations

  Appraisals are often the subjective (judgmental) – perceptions of appraisers of another employee’s job performance.

  

The Link Between Perceptions and Individual

Decision Making

The Link Between Perceptions and Individual

Decision Making

  Perception of the decision maker Perception of the decision maker Problem

  A perceived discrepancy between the current state of affairs and a desired state.

  Decisions

  Choices made from among alternatives developed from data perceived as relevant.

  

Assumptions of the Rational Decision-Making

Model

Assumptions of the Rational Decision-Making

Model

  Model Assumptions

• Problem clarity
• Known options
• Clear preferences
• Constant
• Problem clarity
• Known options
• Clear preferences
• Constant

  preferences

• No time or cost
• No time or cost

  constraints Model Assumptions

  preferences

  constraints Rational Decision- Making Model

  Describes how individuals should behave in order to maximize some outcome. Steps in the Rational Decision-Making Model

Steps in the Rational Decision-Making Model 1. Define the problem

  2. Identify the decision criteria.

  3. Allocate weights to the criteria.

  4. Develop the alternatives.

  5. Evaluate the alternatives.

  6. Select the best alternative. The Three Components of Creativity The Three Components of Creativity

  Creativity

  The ability to produce novel and useful ideas.

  Three-Component Model of Creativity

  Proposition that individual creativity requires expertise, creative-thinking skills, and intrinsic task motivation. How Are Decisions Actually Made in

How Are Decisions Actually Made in

  Organizations? Organizations?

  Bounded Rationality

  Individuals make decisions by constructing simplified models that extract the essential features from problems without capturing all their complexity. How Are Decisions Actually Made in How Are Decisions Actually Made in

  Organizations? (cont’d) Organizations? (cont’d)

• How/Why problems are Identified

  Visibility over importance of problem –

• Attention-catching, high profile problems
• Desire to “solve problems”

  Self-interest (if problem concerns decision maker) –

• Alternative Development

  Satisficing: seeking the first alternative that solves – problem.

  Engaging in incremental rather than unique problem – solving through successive limited comparison of Common Biases and Errors Common Biases and Errors

• Overconfidence Bias

  Believing too much in our own ability to make good – decisions.

• Anchoring Bias

  Using early, first received information as the basis for – making subsequent judgments.

• Confirmation Bias

  Using only the facts that support our decision. – Common Biases and Errors Common Biases and Errors

• Availability Bias

  Using information that is most readily at hand. –

• Recent Vivid •
• Representative Bias

  “Mixing apples with oranges”

• – Assessing the likelihood of an occurrence by trying to match –

  it with a preexisting category using only the facts that

  support our decision.
• Winner’s Curse

  Highest bidder pays too much – Likelihood of “winner’s curse” increases with the number of – Common Biases and Errors Common Biases and Errors

• Escalation of Commitment

  In spite of new negative information, commitment – actually increases!

• Randomness Error

  Creating meaning out of random events –

• Hindsight Bias

  Looking back, once the outcome has occurred, and – believing that you accurately predicted the outcome of an event Intuition Intuition

• Intuitive Decision Making

• – An unconscious process created out of distilled

  experience.
• Conditions Favoring Intuitive Decision Making
• – A high level of uncertainty exists
• – There is little precedent to draw on
• – Variables are less scientifically predictable
• – “Facts” are limited
• – Facts don’t clearly point the way
• – Analytical data are of little use
• – Several plausible alternative solutions exist

  

Individual Differences in Decision Making

Individual Differences in Decision Making

• Personality
>Aspects of conscientiousness and escalation of commitm
• Self Esteem High self serving bias
• Gender
• Women tend to analyze decisions more than men.

  

Organizational Constraints on Decision Makers

Organizational Constraints on Decision Makers

• Performance Evaluation

  Evaluation criteria influence the choice of actions. –

• Reward Systems
• – Decision makers make action choices that are favored by the organization.
• Formal Regulations
• – Organizational rules and policies limit the alternative choices of decision makers.
• System-imposed Time Constraints
• – Organizations require decisions by specific deadlines.
• Historical Precedents

  Cultural Differences in Decision Making

Cultural Differences in Decision Making

• Problems selected
• Time orientation
• Importance of logic and rationality
• Belief in the ability of people to solve problems
• Preference for collective decision making

  Ethics in Decision Making Ethics in Decision Making

• Ethical Decision Criteria

  Utilitarianism –

• Seeking the greatest good for the greatest number.

  Rights –

• Respecting and protecting basic rights of individuals such as whistleblowers.

  Justice –

• Imposing and enforcing rules fairly and impartially.

Ethics in Decision Making Ethics in Decision Making

• Ethics and National Culture

  There are no global ethical standards. – The ethical principles of global organizations that – reflect and respect local cultural norms are necessary for high standards and consistent practices.

Ways to Improve Decision Making

  Ways to Improve Decision Making

  1. Analyze the situation and adjust your decision making style to fit the situation.

  2. Be aware of biases and try to limit their impact.

  3. Combine rational analysis with intuition to increase decision-making effectiveness.

  

4. Don’t assume that your specific decision style is

appropriate to every situation.

  

5. Enhance personal creativity by looking for novel

solutions or seeing problems in new ways, and using analogies.

  Toward Reducing Bias and Errors Toward Reducing Bias and Errors  Focus on goals.

  Clear goals make decision making easier and help to –

eliminate options inconsistent with your interests.

• Look for information that disconfirms beliefs.

  Overtly considering ways we could be wrong – challenges our tendencies to think we’re smarter than we actually are.

• Don’t try to create meaning out of random events.

  Don’t attempt to create meaning out of coincidence. –  Increase your options.

  The number and diversity of alternatives generated –

  It’s your little sister’s senior Prom night, and she notices

that everyone is wearing the same dress she has on!

Which perceptual shortcut may be occurring?

• Escalation of commitment

  Escalation of commitment

• Representative bias

  Representative bias

• Availability Bias

  Availability Bias Chapter Check-Up: Perception

  

It’s your little sister’s senior Prom night, and she notices that

everyone is wearing the same dress she has on! Which perceptual shortcut may be occurring?

  Chapter Check-Up: Perception

• Escalation of commitment

  Escalation of commitment

• Representative bias

  Representative bias

• Availability Bias

  Availability Bias

• Hindsight Bias

  Hindsight Bias

Discuss with your neighbor what the answer would be if your

sister came home and said “I just knew that everyone would buy

that dress!”

Chapter Check-Up: Perception

  If all of these perceptual shortcuts

happen unconsciously, how can we

keep the stereotypes we have from

interfering with the way we work in

group projects? Identify two specific

things you could do to help prevent

stereotypes from inhibiting effective

group relationships. Discuss with a

neighbor.

  Chapter Check-Up: Decision

Making

  

Michael has just discovered he is double registered for two classes

at the same time and must make a decision about which one to take this semester. He considers the professor teaching this semester, the time of the class, and the classes his friends are taking. He then considers his options for when he can take each class again, as well as the costs and benefits for taking each this semester versus later next year. He then makes his decision. Michael has just engaged in what?

  

Chapter Check-Up: Decision

Making

In making his decision, Michael forgot

to consider the implications of the color of paint in the room where each class was being offered. Given that

room color can influence mood, which

can influence performance, why didn’t

Michael consider it?

  Michael engaged in the rational decision making model, and didn’t consider the paint color of the rooms because he operates under the confines of bounded rationality.

  

Chapter Check-Up: Decision

Making

  

Chapter Checkup: What biases

might have affected Martha

Stewart’s judgment? Discuss with a

classmate.