THE FUNCTIONS, POSITIONS AND MEANINGS OF FOR AND TO PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES IN JEANETTE WINTERSON’S SEXING THE CHERRY
THE FUNCTIONS, POSITIONS AND MEANINGS OF FOR AND TO PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
IN JEANETTE WINTERSON’S SEXING THE CHERRY AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters
By
MAYA ELFRIDA SIANIPAR
Student Number: 034214126
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2007
A Sarjana Sastra Undergraduate Thesis
THE FUNCTIONS, POSITIONS AND MEANINGS OF FOR AND TO PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
IN JEANETTE WINTERSON’S SEXING THE CHERRY
A Sarjana Sastra Undergraduate Thesis
THE FUNCTIONS, POSITIONS AND MEANINGS OF FOR AND TO PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
IN JEANETTE WINTERSON’S SEXING THE CHERRY
By
MAYA ELFRIDA SIANIPAR
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The first thing to say is that I am very thankful and grateful, and that I praise my Greatest God, Jesus Christ for blessing me all the time especially when I feel so exhausted of writing this thesis.
Moreover, I owe so much gratitude to many people in the effort of finishing this thesis. Certainly, the gratitude is given to Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M. Pd.,
M. A., my advisor, who has guided me in this thesis writing process. Afterward, I
would like to thank my co-advisor, J. Harris H.Setiajid, S.S., M.Hum., who had read and checked this thesis carefully.
I would like to express the deep gratitude as well as the high respect to my beloved family. The special credit goes to my wise and intelligent father, P. P.
Sianipar, S. H., my lovely mother, B. Sitinjak, my only one sister, Elisabeth
Sianipar, and my brothers, Richo Sianipar and Willy Sianipar. You are all the
best in my life. I believe that you always pray for my success. Thank you very much! I would like also to express thanks to all my friends in Sanata Dharma
University, especially “Angkatan 2003” class D, Ike, Cisil, Yacko-Stella, Dean-
Simin, Abiet, Tio, Clara, Sondang, and Agnes. “Thank you for the smile and
laugh you gave to me”. For my five closest friends, Aning, Deny, Merry, Mitha, and Nining, who are always there when I need to be accompanied, thank you, friends!
I also thank Witman Gultom, who has helped me in writing the analysis of my thesis. I also will not forget to thank all crews of TDB Yogyakarta for the sweet moments we already had. I hope we will always be in contact wherever we are. Finally, for all people I cannot mention here who always support me, thank you very much.
Maya Elfrida Sianipar
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE …………………………………………………………... i APPROVAL PAGE ................................................................................. ii ACCEPTANCE PAGE ............................................................................ iii MOTTO PAGE ................................................................................... iv DEDICATION PAGE ............................................................................. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS …………………………………………… vi TABLE OF CONTENS ………………………………………………… viii ABSTRACT ……………………………………………………………. ix ABSTRAK ……………………………………………………………… xCHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ……………………………………… 1 A. Background of the Study …………………………………….. 1 B. Problem Formulation ………………………………………… 3 C. Objectives of the Study ……………………………………… 4 D. Definition of Terms …………………………………………..4 CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE ………………………… 6 A. Review of Related Studies ………………………………….... 6 B. Review of Related Theories ………………………………….. 8
1. Theory of Prepositions ……………………………... 9 2.
Theory of Phrases ………………………………………21 3. Theory of Clauses ………………………………………22 C. Theoretical Framework ……………………………………… 23
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY …………………………………… 25 A. Object of the Study …………………………………………... 25 B. Approach of the Study …………………………………….. 25 C. Method of the Study …………………………………………..26 CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS …………………………………………….. 28 A. The functions of prepositional phrases with for and to ………. 28 B. The positions of prepositional phrases with for and to ………. 36 C. The meanings of prepositions for and to
as used in prepositional phrases ………………………………. 44
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION …………………………………………. 54 BIBLIOGRAPHY ……………………………………………………….. 56 APPENDICES …………………………………………………………… 58 A. Prepositional Phrases with for and their contexts ....................... 58 B. Prepositional Phrases with to and their contexts ……………….. 62
ABSTRACT
MAYA ELFRIDA SIANIPAR. The Functions, Positions and Meanings of for to Prepositional Phrases in Jeanette Winterson’s Sexing the Cherry.
and
Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2007
The prepositions are one of word classes which are commonly used in English. There are more than 100 prepositions in English, some of which seem equal, for examples the prepositions for and to. Both prepositions, in fact, are not really equal. They might have differences in functions, positions, and meanings. The differences between the prepositions which seem equal, for and to, in functions, positions, and meanings are the reasons why the writer has chosen both prepositions as the topic of this thesis, especially the prepositions for and to which show time, place, and movement. The source of the data is a novel written by Jeanette Winterson, Sexing the Cherry. The theories used in this analysis are the theories of prepositions, phrases, and clauses.
There are three problems that are going to be answered in this thesis; they are the functions of prepositional phrases with for and to, the positions of prepositional phrases with for and to and the meaning of the prepositions for and to contained in the prepositional phrases as used in the novel Sexing the Cherry.
The data are the phrases and clauses which have the prepositions for and to in the novel Sexing the Cherry taken randomly. The data collection and the data analysis took place simultaneously; first, the data were collected, by signing the samples to be taken, the prepositional phrases with for and to, and then classified the data by considering the circumstances around both prepositions in order to find out the prepositional phrases which show time, place, and movement. Then they are analyzed to find the functions, the positions of the prepositional phrases with for and to, and also to find the meanings of each preposition.
After doing the steps in the method of the study, the writer found that prepositional phrases with for can function as an adjunct and a post modifier of a noun phrase, while prepositional phrases with to can function as an adjunct, a post modifier of a noun phrase, a complementation of a verb, and as a complementation of an adjective. The positions can be owned by both prepositions are in initial, medial and final (end) position. The meanings of preposition for which show time are duration or the length of the time, occasion, and target; to show place, preposition for can mean target, position, and distance. The preposition to which shows time can indicate the time (before an exact hour on the clock), continuity, and target; to introduce place, this preposition can mean positions, target, and distance. Moreover, to show movement, preposition to means from starting point to destination.
ABSTRAK
MAYA ELFRIDA SIANIPAR. The Functions, Positions and Meanings of for to Prepositional Phrases in Jeanette Winterson’s Sexing the Cherry.
and
Yogyakarta: Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2007.
Kata depan merupakan salah satu kelompok kata yang sering digunakan dalam bahasa Inggris. Terdapat lebih dari 100 kata depan dalam bahasa Inggris, dan beberapa diantaranya terlihat sama, sebagai contoh adalah kata depan for dan
to . Kedua kata depan tersebut pada kenyataanya tidak benar-benar sama. Kedua
kata depan tersebut berbeda dalam fungsi, posisi, dan arti. Perbedaan antara kata depan yang terlihat sama, for dan to, dalam fungsi, posisi, dan arti inilah yang menjadi alasan penulis memilih kata depan for dan to sebagai topik skripsi ini, khususnya yang digunakan sebagai penunjuk waktu, tempat, dan perpindahan. Sumber data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah novel karya Jeanette Winterson, Sexing the Cherry. Teori-teori yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini antara lain: teori kata depan, teori frasa dan teori klausa.
Terdapat tiga masalah yang akan dibahas dalam skripsi ini, yaitu: fungsi dari frasa yang mengandung kata depan for dan to, posisi frasa yang mengandung kata depan for dan to, dan arti masing masing kata depan dalam frasa yang terdapat dalam novel Sexing the Cherry.
Data yang digunakan adalah frasa dan klausa yang mengandung kata depan for dan to di dalam novel Sexing the Cherry. Pengumpulan dan penelitian data dilakukan secara serentak; langkah pertama dilakukan dengan mengumpulkan data dengan cara memberi tanda data yang akan diteliti, frasa dengan kata depan for dan to, dan kemudian data dikelompokkan dengan cara menganalisis lingkungan disekitar kata depan tersebut untuk memperoleh kata depan yang digunakan untuk menunjukkan waktu, tempat, dan perpindahan. Kemudian frasa yang mengandung kedua kata depan tersebut dianalisis untuk mendapatkan fungsi, posisi frasa yang mengandung kata depan for dan to, dan arti masing-msing kata depan.
Penulis menemukan bahwa frasa dengan kata depan for dapat berfungsi sebagai sebuah keterangan dan frasa yang menerangkan sebuah frasa kata benda; sedangkan frasa dengan kata depan to dapat berfungsi sebagai keterangan, frasa yang menerangkan sebuah frasa kata benda, pelengkap kata sifat, dan juga sebagai pelengkap sebuah kata kerja. Posisi yang dapat ditempati kedua kata depan tersebut adalah posisi awal, tengah, dan akhir. Arti kata depan for yang menunjukkan waktu adalah durasi atau lamanya waktu, saat dan target waktu; yang menunjukkan tempat, memiliki arti tempat tujuan, posisi dan jarak. Kata depan to yang menunjukkan waktu memiliki arti menunjukkan jam (sebelum angka yang menunjukkan jam), terus menerus, dan target waktu; yang menunjukkan tempat memiliki arti posisi, tempat tujuan, dan jarak. Kata depan to yang menunjukkan perpindahan memiliki arti perpindahan dari tempat asal
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study Prepositions are a group of words (for examples: at, in, on, from, to, for,
out of , on behalf of, etc.) that are used before a noun or pronoun to show, for
examples: place, position, time or method; for instances: after school, before the class (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 1995). Here is the example: (1) The teacher in my speaking class comes from Australia. According to Collins Cobuild English Guides, Prepositions (1991), there are more than 100 prepositions in English. From those 100 prepositions, the most frequent prepositions that are used in sentences are the prepositions to, of, and in.
Most sentences that people produce contain at least one preposition; indeed, three out of the ten most frequent words of English are prepositions: of, to, and in (1991: vi).
Moreover, from the quoting sentence, we can see that an English sentence may have more than one preposition. For example: (2)
Liz had invited the whole group to her house for coffee (Collins Cobuild English Guides, Prepositions, 1991: 33 ).
From the 100 prepositions, there are only two prepositions that are going to be analyzed here; they are the prepositions for and to which show time, place, movement are chosen for this analysis because they seem like having the same functions, meanings, and position.
The preposition to in certain context can be changed into the preposition
for , or vice versa. For instances: (3) I bring it for you.
(4) I bring it to you. In those sentences above, the function, the meaning, and the position of the prepositions to and for are similar, both to and for are used in the same condition, preceded by the correct verb and they have meaning to express the intended goal or target. However in some cases, prepositions for and to may not always be used in the same condition, because they can have different functions and positions which might change the meaning. For examples:
(5) We stayed there for three months. (6) *We stayed there to three months.
The sentence (6) is not correct because the preposition to cannot have the same form with preposition for when they are used for showing time.
The differences between the prepositions for and to cannot only be seen from their meanings, but also from their functions and their positions when they are used as prepositional phrases in clauses. A prepositional phrase is a group of words beginning with a preposition and usually ending with noun or pronoun (Warriner, 1951: 37). When prepositional phrases appear in a clause, they must have certain functions.
The functions and the positions of prepositional phrases with for and to when they are used in a clause and also the meanings of the prepositions for and
to contain in the prepositional phrases will be the discussions of this analysis. The
prepositional phrases analyzed here are the prepositional phrases contained in a novel entitled Sexing the Cherry (Jeanette Winterson, 1989). Specifically, as stated before, the prepositional phrases taken from the novel as the data are the ones which show time, place, and movement.
The novel Sexing the Cherry is used in this analysis because this novel is one of the popular English novels and it is published widely. This analysis is made in order to help the English learners to understand the functions and the positions of prepositional phrases with for and to and also the meanings of both prepositions used in the prepositional phrases by using data taken from the novel written by Jeanette Winterson, Sexing the Cherry, so that they do not make the simple mistake anymore.
It is called simple because people sometimes think that prepositions, including to and for, are just very small parts of English language that will not change everything. Whereas, those very small parts of English language can influence the meanings which can make the understanding of the readers or the hearers become disturbed.
B. Problem Formulation
The problems that are going to be analyzed in this analysis are based on the novel entitled Sexing the Cherry are:
1. What functions do the prepositional phrases with for and to have in Sexing
the Cherry ?
2. What are the positions of prepositional phrases with for and to in the novel?
3. What are the meanings of the prepositions for and to containing in the prepositional phrases as used in the novel?
C. Objectives of the study
According to the problem formulation stated before, there are three objectives of this analysis. The first objective is to identify the functions of the prepositional phrases with for and to when they are used in clauses. This will help the English learners understand the functions of prepositional phrases in a clause.
After knowing the functions of the prepositional phrases in clauses, the writer tries to identify the positions of the prepositional phrases in clauses because some prepositional phrases with the same preposition might have different positions.
The last objective is to find the meanings of the prepositions for and to contained in the prepositional phrases. The prepositions for and to that are used in this analysis are the prepositions which show time, places, and movement.
D. Definition of Terms
The term used in this analysis is prepositional phrases. However, to know more about prepositional phrases, we have to know what a preposition is. According to Marckwardt (1948: 263), a preposition is a word showing the relationship of its object and some other words in the sentences. Another definition of preposition is a word that shows a relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in the sentence (Troyka, 1987: 710). Here is the example:
(7) Much of New York City’s famous skyline was built by Mohawk Indians (Troyka, 1987: 150).
A prepositional phrase is a phrase consists of a preposition followed by a prepositional complement which is characteristically a noun phrase or a wh-clause or V-ing clause (Quirk et al, 1973: 143). For examples (1973: 143): (8) He was surprised at what he said.
(9) He was surprised at her remark. (10) He was surprised at her saying this.
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE In this part, we are going to have the review of the related studies which is
about the review of the similar topic(s), the review of related theory that will be used in solving the problems of this analysis, and also the theoretical framework which is about the way to use the theories which are stated in the review of related theories to solve the problems.
A. Review of Related Studies
Review of the studies is the review of the previous researches about the similar analysis. The first similar topic is found in the thesis written by C. Yola Ika Dinalia, a student of English Language Education study program of Sanata Dharma University, graduated in 1999. The title of her thesis is Subject Matter Prepositional Phrases as Post-modifiers in Titles of Books and Journal Articles .
The prepositions discussed in the analysis are about, of, and on. She chooses those prepositions because they follow or are followed by various kinds of word (nouns, pronouns, verbs or adjectives).
There are certain prepositions which are difficult to learn. They include prepositions referring to subject matter, e.g. about, of, on, over, etc. (Why? Because) those prepositions follow or are followed by various kind of words (nouns, pronouns, verbs or adjectives) (1999: 4).
In this thesis Yola tries to answer two questions, they are: (1) What is the subject matter as post-modifiers? and (2) What are the heads which can be post- modified by the prepositions about, of, and on in prepositional phrases referring to subject matter (1999: 7).The theories used in this thesis are the theories of preposition , post-modifier, and post-modification by the prepositional phrases.
After analyzing the data, the writer concludes that: (1) The pattern which underlined the application of prepositional about, of and on in prepositional phrases referring to subject matter as post-modifiers on titles is particular words (Noun) + prepositions; (2) There are three categorizations that show the relationship between the heads and the prepositions, they are one head-one
preposition , one head-either of or on, and one head-about, of, on; (3) The most
explicit preposition from those three prepositions is about, while on is relatively explicit, and of is the least explicit; and the last is (4) Compared with the other prepositions, the occurrence of the head being post-modified by preposition on is the most frequent (1999: 73-6).
Another study about the similar topic, relating with the prepositions, is an article written by Amy Patterson based on the analysis of David Kemmerer, an assistant professor of psychological sciences and linguistics at Purdue’s College of Liberal Arts. The topic of the analysis is thinking of Prepositions Turns Brain
‘on’ in Different Ways (2005). The article is about the relation between the use of
prepositions and someone’s ability of thinking.In the article, according to David Kemmerer, someone’s brain does not always think that one preposition has different function in the same way. The study is the first cognitive neuroscience study to investigate brain regions for spatial and temporal relations, those involving time, used in language.
David Kemmerer gives the examples of the use of preposition at to describe time and location. A person might think that if someone’s knowledge of the word at to describe location is impaired, then his or her ability in using the same preposition to describe time will be disrupted, but David Kemmerer found that the words implying time are processed independently.
After looking at the studies above, we can see that the writer has different topic to be analyzed in this thesis. The writer concerns with the functions and positions of prepositional phrases with for and to, and also the meanings of the prepositions, not about the prepositions about, of, and on, neither about the relation between the use of prepositions and someone’s ability of thinking.
B. Review of Related Theories
The theories that are going to be used in this analysis are the theories of
prepositions , phrases, and clauses. Those theories are used in this discussion
because the functions and the positions of prepositional phrases and also the meanings of the preposition to and for in the novel Sexing the Cherry cover the theories of prepositions, phrases, and clauses.
The theory of prepositions is used for answering the functions, the positions of the prepositional phrases and also the meanings of the prepositions
for and to. The theory of phrases and clauses are used in this analysis to identify the prepositions and the prepositional phrases for and to in the novel Sexing the Cherry .
1. Prepositions
The definition of prepositions is stated by Thomson and Martinet in their book entitled A Practical English Grammar.
Prepositions are words normally placed before the nouns or pronouns. Prepositions can also be followed by verbs but, except after but and
except , the verb must be in the gerund form: They succeeded in escaping (1980: 91).
written by Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, and
A Comprehensive Grammar
Jan Svartvik (1985: 657) says that a preposition expresses a relation between two entities, one is represented by the prepositional complement and the other by another part of the sentence; for example: (11) We were looking at his awful paintings.
a. The form of preposition
Based on a book entitled A Comprehensive Grammar (Quirk et al, 1985: 665-70), there are two forms of prepositions; they are simple and complex prepositions.
i. Simple prepositions
Most of English prepositions, such as at, in, and for are simple, means that they consist of one word. Other prepositions, consisting of more than one word are called complex (Quirk et al, 1985: 665). In view of the different stress pattern,
for , to, since, through, etc, and polysyllabic prepositions, such as: about, before,
during , except, throughout, etc (1985: 665-67).ii. Complex prepositions
As stated before, complex prepositions are prepositions that consist of more than one word. They may be subdivided into two-word sequences and three-
word sequences (Quirk et al, 1985: 669).
The first word of the two-word sequences, which usually is relatively stressed, is an adverb, adjective, or conjunction, and the second word is a simple preposition (usually for, from, of, to, or with), for examples (1985: 669):
(12) We had to leave early because of the bad weather. (13) I sat next to an old lady on the train.
Moreover, the three-word sequences have a certain pattern; Prep1 + Noun
- Prep 2. Here are the examples (1985: 670):
(14) In terms of money, her loss was small. (15)
In line with latest trend of fashion, many dress designers have been sacrificing elegance to audacity.
b. Prepositional Phrases
When we are talking about prepositions, we of course will talk about the
prepositional phrase . According to Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum,
Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik in their book titled A Grammar of
Contemporary English (1972: 299-300) , prepositional phrase has three forms;
they are:
i. Preposition and prepositional complement
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition followed by a prepositional complement, which is characteristically either a noun phrase or a clause in nominal function (Quirk et al, 1972: 299), for examples: (16) We can know the truth from what he said.
ii. That- clause and infinitive clauses That- clauses and infinitive clauses do not occur as prepositional complement although they frequently have a nominal function in other respects.
In the examples below we can see the alternation between the presence and absence of a preposition (1972: 299): (17) They persuaded him of the need for more troops. (18) They persuaded him of how many troops they need. (19) They persuaded him that they needed more troops. (20) They persuaded him to send for more troops. The alternations given above show that the prepositions which follow certain verbs and adjectives is omitted before a that- clause or infinitive clause.
iii. Postposed prepositions
Normally, a preposition must be followed by its complement, but there are some circumstances in which this does not happen because the complement has to take the first position in the clause, or else is absent through ellipsis (Quirk et al, 1972: 300), for examples:
(21) Which house did you leave it at?
(23) She was sought after by all the leading impresarios of the day. (24) He’s impossible to work with. (25) He’s worth listening to.
From the examples above we can see that the most frequent position of prepositions is in the final position of the clause which in the past it was criticized as contrary to ‘a good grammar’.
The thought against such postposed prepositions remains in formal English, which offers (for relative and direct or indirect questions) the alternative of an initial preposition (Quirk et al, 1972: 300):
(26) It was a situation from which no escape was possible. However, this position sometimes considered as awkward form in formal English and indeed in some cases the postposed preposition has no preposed alternative (1972: 300).
c. Syntactic function of prepositional phrases
In general terms, a preposition expresses a relation between two entities; one is represented by the prepositional complement and the other by another part of the sentence.
In the most general terms, a preposition expresses a relation between two entities, one being that represented by the prepositional complement, the other by another part of the sentence. The prepositional complement is characteristically a noun phrase, a nominal wh-clause, or a nominal –ing clause (Quirk et al, 1985: 657).
According to Quirk (1973: 145-6), prepositional phrases have the following
i. Postmodifier in a noun phrase
Prepositional phrase is by far the commonest type of post modification in English (Quirk, 1972: 883). The postmodifying phrase normally follows the elements it postmodifies directly. In this case, the preposition becomes the postmodifying phrase and the noun phrase becomes the element that is modified.
(27) The people on the bus were singing (1972: 304)
ii. Adverbial
Prepositional phrases can also have function as an adverbial. There are four types of adverbial that can be the functions of the prepositional phrases; they are:
a. Adjunct, whenever it is affected by clausal processes as negation and
interrogation. Adjunct can be known by seeing the characteristics. First, it cannot appear initially in a negative declarative clause. Second, it can be the focus of question or of clause negation. The function of an adjunct is to relate the sentence as a whole (Quirk, 1985: 657). Moreover, adjunct can normally be evoked as the response to a where, when, how long, how
often , and for how long questions (Quirk, 1972: 474, 483, 486), for
example (Quirk, 1985: 657): (28) In the afternoon, we went to Boston.
b. Subjunct, can be distinguished from an adjunct in terms of the feature.
A subjunct can be formed from adjectives, nouns, adverbs, and a corresponding prepositional phrase from the point of view, for example
(29) From personal point of view, I find this is a good solution to the problem.
c. Disjunct, the same as a subjunct, a disjunct also can be distinguished
from an adjunct in term of the feature. A disjunct is not affected by clausal processes. It can appear initially in a negative declarative clause and cannot be the focus of a question or of a clause negation (Quirk, 1985: 657). In the function, a disjunct is related to the speaker’s or writer’s attitude or comment to the statement he is making (Close, 1975: 296). For instance (Quirk, 1985: 657) (30) She did, in all fairness, try to phone the police.
d. Conjunct, similar with a subjunct and a disjunct, a conjunct is also
grammatically different from an adjunct in terms of feature. The function is to conjoin independent units rather than to contribute information to a single integrated unit (Quirk, 1985, 633). A conjunct is used to introduce a new sentence in a series and linking it logically with what has been said before (Close, 1975: 297). Please look at the example taken from A
Grammar of Contemporary English (Quirk, 1972: 304) below:
(31) On the other hand, he made no attempt to help the victim or apprehend he attacker.
iii. Complementation
As complementation of a verb or an adjective, the preposition is more closely related to the preceding word, which determines its choice, than to the prepositional complement (Quirk, 1985: 657). As stated above, the function of prepositional phrases as complementation can be divided into:
a. Complementation of a verb; the elements of a clause structure for the complementation of the verb are important in the use of particular verb.
Therefore, the sentence is incomplete if one of the elements is omitted (Quirk, 1972: 344), for instance (1972: 304): (32) We were looking at his awful paintings.
b. Complementation of an adjective;
Adjective often forms a lexical unit with a following preposition. The lexical bond is strongest with adjectives for which, in a given sense, the complementation is obligatory; for examples: sorry for, close to, fond of, etc (Greenbaum, 1990: 359). For example (Quirk, 1985: 657):
(33) I’m sorry for his parents.
b. Prepositional meaning
In the book written by Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech and Jan Svartvik (1972: 306), it is stated that from various types of relational meaning, those of place and time are the most prominent and easy to identify. Here are the meanings of the prepositions that form the prepositional phrases as stated in the book of Quirk et al, A Grammar of Contemporary English (1972: 306-333).
i. Prepositional phrases expressing the relations place a.
The prepositions used to express the relations between the notions of
(to), on (to), etc.
b.
The prepositions used to express the negative positions are: away from, out of , off, etc.
c.
Prepositions used to describe the dimensional ascribed, subjectively speaking, to the location denoted by the prepositional complement are:
at , on, in, etc.
d.
The prepositions that may express the relative position of two objects or groups of objects are: by, over, under, underneath, beneath, below, etc.
e.
These prepositions can express relative destination; they are: by, over, under , etc.
f.
Prepositions that can be used for expressing the idea of passage as well as destination are: by, over, under, through, past, across, etc.
g.
For expressing movement with reference to a directional path, the prepositional that are usually used are: down, along, up, etc.
h.
The static sense of orientation is expressed by using the prepositions: beyond , over, past, etc. i.
The prepositions which can also have a static resultative meaning indicating the state of having reached the destination are: over, out of. j.
The pervasive meaning (static or emotional) can be expressed by using the prepositions: all over, throughout, etc.
ii. Prepositional phrases expressing the relations in time
a.. Prepositions used to express the meaning of ‘time when’ are: at, on, in, before , after, since, until, between, by and up to.
c.
Some prepositions also can be used for expressing the duration of time, they are: for, in, etc.
iii. Prepositional phrase mainly as adjunct a.
Prepositions to express the material cause or the psychological cause (motive) for a happening are: because of, on account of, etc.
b.
The purpose and intended destination can be expressed by the preposition: for d.
The prepositions which have meaning to express the recipient, goal, or target are: for, to, at.
e.
The source and origin expressed by the use of prepositions: from.
iv. Prepositional phrase mainly as post modifier of noun phrase a.
The notion of having is generally expressed by: of, with, without.
b.
The meaning of manner can be expressed by using: with, in … with, like .
c.
Prepositions used for expressing the meaning by means of and the instrumental meaning are: by, with, without.
d.
The instrument and agentive may be expressed by using the prepositions: with, by.
e.
The relation between an emotion and its stimulus (normally an abstract stimulus) can often be expressed by: at. f.
The meaning of in company with or together with can be expressed by using the preposition: with.
The negative condition expressed by using the preposition: but for.
d.
The prepositions used to specifying the meaning of gradable and also to imply the standard are: at, for.
c.
To indicates the material and ingredient, the prepositions can be used are: with, of, out of.
b.
The meaning of on the subject of and concerning expressed by the use of the prepositions: about, on.
vi. Prepositional phrase mainly as complementation of verb or adjective a.
d.
g.
The meaning of exception expressed by the use of prepositions: except
for, with the exception of, apart from, but, bar, except, barring.
c.
The reference can be expressed by using the prepositions: with regard to , with reference to, as to, as for.
b.
The prepositions used for expressing the general-purpose of concession are: in spite of, despite of, for all, with all, notwithstanding.
agains t. v. Prepositional phrase mainly as disjunct or conjunct a.
The idea of support, solidarity or movement in sympathy, and also opposition can be expressed by using the prepositions: for, with,
The relationship between an event, an emotional reaction, and the person who undergoes the reaction is expressed by using the prepositions: at, to.
e. Positions of prepositional phrases
Quirk at al in A Grammar of Contemporary English (1972: 334-5) state that in most cases apart from adverbials, the syntactic function of a prepositional phrase virtually determines its position and as an adverbial, prepositional phrase is mobile. They also say that there are three major positions in the sentence as
initial, medial and final (1972: 334-5).
For the adjunct, the most frequent position is the final position, such as after the verb and complement, but it is also common to be put in initial position, especially with phrases of time, for examples (Quirk, 1972: 334): (34) I saw him again on Friday.
(35) On Friday, I saw him again. The initial position is usual for phrases having a close connection with the verb, e.g. phrases of destination following a verb of motion; for instance (Quirk,
1972: 334): (36) Into the room he strode.
The prepositional phrases often appear in the initial position in order to avoid ed-focus, or to avoid ambiguity, or to avoid a clustering of adjuncts at end position, though it is not usually possible to isolate anyone reason (Quirk, 1972: 477).
Here are the examples of the prepositional phrases whose function as adjuncts that appear in the initial position (1972: 477): (37) On the tree there were some very large oranges. (38) Outside children were jumping and skipping.
Disjunct and adjunct are usually placed before the subject (initial), but they might also be put in the final, for examples (1972: 477): (39) In my opinion, the wrong decision was made. (40) The wrong decision was made, in my opinion. The medial position for adverbial prepositional phrases in general is the least usual.
The medial position for adverbial prepositional phrases in general is the least usual; it is likely to be used only with short phrases, or where factors such as focus and the complexity of the sentence make the other positions undesirable or impossible (Quirk, 1972: 335).
Here are the examples: (41) She could, of course, have phoned from the office.
(42) They arrived at a village from which the inhabitants, for fear of enemy reprisals , had fled in panic.
The most acceptable medial positions, according to A Grammar of Contemporary
English (1972: 335), are after the subject, after the operator, between the indirect
and the direct object, between the object and the object complement. For instance, (43) His sister at that time was studying medicine.
(44) His sister was at that time studying medicine. (45) His sister became, in time, a qualified doctor. (46) She found the work, on the whole, satisfying and enjoyable.
2. Phrases
According to Francis Katamba in his book, Morphology (1993: 333), a phrase is a syntactic constituent whose head is a lexical category; for examples: a noun, adjective, verb, adverb or preposition. Phrases bring together heads and their modifiers (Miller, 2002: 1), for example:
(47) I cannot chase the large dog.
Dog in the example above is the head, and both the and large are its modifiers. A
given head may have more than one modifier, and may have no modifier (2002: 1).
Modifiers can be divided into two classes, the obligatory modifiers, known as complements, and optional modifiers, known as adjuncts (Miller, 2002: 4) and
attribute (Radford, 1988: 214). Complements always come closer to their head
than attributes or adjuncts. Adjunct and attribute can be distinguished based on their positions; an adjunct is placed after the head, while an attribute is placed before the head (1988: 216). Here is the example: (48) She is a French English teacher.
In the sentence (48) above, the modifier English is closer to the head,
teacher , so it is a complement, while French which is further away from teacher is