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2.2.3.1 Cognitive Strategies
O’Malley and Chamot 1990:136 says that cognitive strategies are operations carried out directly on the material to be learnt. Brown
2000:124 says that cognitive strategies are more limited to specific learning tasks and more direct manipulation of the learning material itself.
According to Ellaine and Christines, 2004:188 cognitive strategies operate directly on incoming information and enable learners to
process texts and materials for learning. This can be done by manipulating the information mentally or physically. Examples of cognitive strategies
are visualize the information, use background knowledge to make inferences, draw concept maps to group items to be learnt, and make notes
about important information to be remembered. Celce-Murcia 2001:363 also states that cognitive strategies enable
the learner to manipulate the language material in direct ways, through reasoning, analyzing, note taking, summarizing, synthesizing, outlining,
reorganizing information to develop stronger schema, practicing in naturalistic setting, and practicing structures and sounds formally.
2.2.3.2 Metacognitive Strategies
According to Ellaine and Christine 2004:188 metacognitive strategies are mental processes for managing thinking and learning. O’Malley and Chamot
1990:134 states that they have four important functions. They are thinking about the learning process, planning for learning, monitoring the learning task,
and evaluating how well one has learnt.
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They describe mental operations used by learners in the self management of their learning. O’ Malley and Chamot 1990:138 organize
these into seven major groups: planning, directed attention, selective attention, self management, self monitoring, problem identification and
self evaluation. Celce-Murcia 2001:364 also states that metacognitive strategies
are identifying one’s own learning style preference and needs, planning for second language tasks, gathering and organizing materials, arranging
schedule, monitoring mistakes, evaluating the success of any type of learning strategies are employed for managing the learning success overall.
2.2.3.3 Social and Affective Strategies
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