Theoretical Framework .1 An Overview of Discourse Analysis

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Theoretical Framework 2.1.1 An Overview of Discourse Analysis Discourse Analysis is a study about text. Text which is discussed is not only in writing but also in speaking language. Halliday and Hasan 1976:1,quoted in Enggins’s book, states “The word TEXT is used in linguistics to refer to any passage, spoken and written, of whatever, that does form a unified whole”. From the quotation, we know that discourse analyzes both written and spoken text. Written texts can be found in the articles, letters, stories, instruction, comics, notice, caution, etc, while spoken texts can be found in the speech, interview, conversation, interruption, etc. in this thesis, the writer analyze spoken text becoming object of the analysis. Speech is one of spoken text that used to do communication and to share what someone thinks at that time by pronouncing in the front of audiences. Basically, many scholars had differed texts into two parts, they are written language called by text while spoken language called by discourse. Otherwise Halliday and Hasan stated that text included both spoken and written language. In this thesis, the writer agrees to Halliday and Hasan’s statement because all of things can be called by text, if they have cohesion and coherence and has message to the others. Enggins 2004:33 states, “The cohesive resource of reference refers to how the writer or speaker introduces participants and then keeps track of them once they are in the text. Participants are the people, places and things that get talked about in the text”. Universitas Sumatera Utara All of the texts, not only written text but also the spoken one, need cohesion, cohesive and coherence to be called by text. Next, Enggins 2004:42 states “The cohesive resource of lexical relation refers to how the writerspeaker uses lexical items nouns, verbs, adjective, adverbs and even to sequences chains of clauses and sentences to relate the text consistently to its area o focus or its field”. The writer knows that text has to be coherence and cohesive in its structure. Cohesive and coherence is not only found in the written text but also in the spoken text. Content of Spoken text should relate each other. In this thesis, the writer agrees to Halliday and Hasan statement.

2.1.2. Systemic Functional Linguistics SFL

In daily life, we use language to many functions, chat to other people, read the newspaper, speech in the front of audience, tell the story, do interview, make an appointment. To do those activities, we need language and should know its context of language that used at that time. And the language that we are used to doing those activities relates to texts, both written text and spoken text in order that the writer will analyze it by SFL. Systemic Functional Linguistics is one of theories about language relating to language and its context. The Idea of context firstly is founded by Malinowski continued by Firth and developed by Firth’s students called by Neo-Firthian. One of his students is M.A.K Halliday. Systemic functional linguistics was developed by M.A.K Halliday, a professor of linguistics from Sydney University, Australia. In this theory, the texts are analyzed based on language and its context. Universitas Sumatera Utara SFL works on language and its context. ‘S’ for Systemic implies systemic relations and their probabilities in systemic networks. The probabilities are started from general to specific features. Next, it is also implies that the systems of meaning involved interrelation relating to investigating phenomena. The “F” for Functional implies that it is concerned with the functional realizations of the systems in structures. Enggins 2004:2 says, “Halliday’s interest has always been with the meanings of language in use in the textual processes of social life”. Based on this quotation, the writer agrees that all processes of social life as part of language have meanings. It is the most suitable theory that the writer apply to analyze this thesis. The writer thinks that SFL theory is the most suitable to analyze spoken text in this thesis. They are inauguration speeches by Julia Gillard and John Howard as Prime Ministers of Australia.

2.1.3 Metafunction of Language

Systemic Functional Linguistics SFL describes that language is functional or called by Metafunction. Metafunction of language means that it is not about functions of language but it is about fundamental concepts of someone in using language. There are three functional of Metafunction in languages, they are The Ideational Function, The Interpersonal Function and The Textual Function. 2.1.3.1 The Ideational Function The ideational function relates to experiences of someone relating to process that happened at that time. It is realized in some points, they are participants, process, and circumstance. The ideational function has two meanings, they are experiential Universitas Sumatera Utara meaning and logical meaning. Halliday and Matthiessen 2004 quoted in Enggins’s book states that the ideational strand of meaning in fact involves two components : that of experiential meaning in the clause and that of the logical meaning between clauses in clause complexes. Experiential meaning relates to what has happened between oneself to the external world. The clause represents both actions relating to inside of oneself as experience and outside world of someone. In this function, they have some points to represent their experiences, they are participant, process, and circumstance. The process that has been happened is called by transitivity process. They are material, mental, relational, verbal, existential and behavioral process. Besides experiential meaning, logical meaning relates to ideational function. The clauses should be related each other and can take conclusion logically based on the clauses described in the text, not only written text but also spoken text.

2.1.3.2 The Interpersonal Function

The interpersonal function relates to interpretation and interaction done by the doers. The clauses describe relation between the speaker and the listener in the spoken text or the writer and the listener in the written text. Halliday 1984, Halliday and Matthiessen 2004:106-111 quoted in Enggins’s book state that approaches the grammar of interaction from a semantic perspective. He points out that whenever we use language to interact, one of the things we are doing with it is establishing a relationship between the person speaking now and the person who will probably speak next. Enggins 2004:144 Universitas Sumatera Utara From this quotation, the writer concludes that relationship between speaker and listener or writer and reader should establish called by interaction each other.

2.1.3.3 The Textual Function

The textual function relates to the interpretation of someone taken by clauses as message. In this textual function, we can catch meaning the message and coherence between a clause to other clauses and relate them by activity and language. In this function, the components of textual function are theme and rheme. The message or meaning in the clause called by theme and rest is called by rheme. Enggins 2004:212 says, “By looking at what the speaker puts first in the clause, we can capture the encoding of textual meaning”. And “with theme used to refer to the point of departure ‘what I’m talking about and Rheme to label the point of arrival ‘what I’m telling you about it”. In this thesis, the writer will limit the analysis is only about the Ideational Function relating to experiential meaning that representing experiences based on participant, process and circumstances. In this thesis, the writer will concentrate to Transitivity processes found in Inauguration speech of two selected prime minister. They are Julia Gillard and John Howard.

2.1.4 Transitivity Process

Transitivity system belongs to experiential metafunctions. When someone speaks by clauses consisting words, the meaning of the words has been in someone’s mind. This meaning relates to the content or the idea of the words. Processes found is representation of processes relating to transitivity systems. Transitivity provides some types of process with own characteristics and functions. Universitas Sumatera Utara The transitivity is divided into three point, they are Participants, processes, and circumstances. Participant is the doer that does an action in a clause. This participant will be named by own name in each of types process of transitivity, For example killing is a kind of material process and the participant or the doer will have different name with hearing as the mental process. Then, processes are actions that done by the doer or the participants based on their types. Enggins 2004:210 says that, “Transitivity construes the world of experience into a manageable set of process types.” By transitivity we can analyze the types of processes, what type of processes are mostly used in the text. Halliday 2004:169 says, “The clause construes a relationship of signification between a word and its meaning”. Next, circumstances is the background of process that done by the participants. On the other words, circumstances can be location, time, manner, etc in which the participant does some actions. Halliday 1994:151 proposes nine main types of circumstantial elements. They are location, extent, manner, cause, Contingency, accompaniment, role, matter, angle. In this thesis, the writer only analyzes the types of processes. They are material, mental, relational, behavioral, verbal, existential processes. In this thesis, the writer only focuses on types of transitivity processes found in those selected inauguration speech. Halliday 2004:173 says, “The semiotic space shown in below can be interpreted systematically as a system network. Like all system networks, this network construes a continuous semiotic space”. Universitas Sumatera Utara Figure: 5.3 TRANSITIVITY represented as system networks Source: Halliday, 2004: 173 Process Type

2.2.1 Material Processes

Enggins 2004:215 says, “Material processes are processes about doing, about action. Actions involve actors, or participants. Participants realized by nominal groups.” This quotation stated that material processes has characteristic is doing a real action or movement and this type relates to physical action, and in this process we can see real action of doing this process, for instance walking, bringing, kicking, touching, etc. in this material process, the first participants will be called by the actor and the second or more participant will be named by the goal. In the inaugural speech, we can see the examples, Identifying + Token: + Sanser: + Behaver Behavioural Major Material Actor Behaver ; Conscious Mental + Sanser: Sanser : Conscious Verbal + Sayer Relational Attribute + Attribut: + Value: Existential + Existent Universitas Sumatera Utara Many women follow us into the parliament Many women Follow us into the parliament Actor Pr : Material Goal Circ loc: place

2.2.2 Mental Processes

Enggins 2004: 225 says, “We are not asking about actions or doings in a tangible, physical sense, but about mental reactions: about thought, feelings, perceptions.” We know that mental process is a type of transitivity process that related to sense, feeling of person. In mental process, the first participant who does the action is called by Senser, and the second participant or the purpose will be named by Phenomenon, for example We understand the great enduring truth . We understand the great enduring truth Senser Pr : Mental Phenomenon

2.2.3 Behavioral Processes

Behavioral process is a kind of process that relating to psychological and the actions are done in conscious being. This type of process is between mental and material processes. In this process, it usually has one participant that is called by Behaver. If there is any second participant, it will be called by Behaviour. Enggins 2004: 233 states that, “Halliday describes these processes semantically as a ‘half - way house’ between mental and material processes.” In other words, behavioral process is included the action process, but the action is done with consciousness. For example, stared, laughed, waved, sigh, laugh, watch, etc. Universitas Sumatera Utara For instance, He laughed at people in the front of this building He Laughed at people in the front of this building Behaver Pr : Behavioral Behaviour Circ loc: place Actually, between Mental processes and Behavioral Processes, there is similarities, they discuss about processes relating to thinking and feeling. The difference is Mental processes relates to verbs happened unconsciously while Behavioral processes relates to verbs happened consciously by the Behaver. For instance, hear, related to physical perception verbs, relating to mental processes. This action is happened unconsciously by the Senser while listen to is a process requiring consciousness when doing this process.

2.2.4 Verbal Processes

Verbal processes is a kind of processes that relating to the saying and directly effects to mental operation. It is done by consciousness. For example, said, told, report, asked, repeated, etc. For example : Santi is asking me about the information Santi is asking me the information Sayer Pr : Verbal Receiver Verbiage

2.2.5 Relational Processes

Relational processes is a part of predicates that using to be or auxiliary as the processes. There is no real action like material processes but there is regarded as a clause that the existence is regarded, for instance am, will not be, may be, hasn’t had, Universitas Sumatera Utara are, would have been, etc. There are two classifications in relational process. They are Intensive Attributive Processes and Intensive Identifying Processes. Enggins 2004:240 states that, “…. There is no passive form of the clause: the subject can never conflate with the role attributive, but will always conflate with the role of carrier”. In the intensive attributive processes, the first participant will be named by Carrier while the second participant is called by Attributive. In intensive Identifying process, the first participant will be named by Token, and the other participant will be named by Value. Enggins 2004:242 states that, “Typically the nominal groups in identifying intensive are definite, whereas in attributives the attribute is an indefinite nominal group”. Means that there is no passive form in Intensive Attributive Process otherwise it can be passive forms in intensive identifying process. It is happened because most of the first participant and the other participants are nominal groups, for example 1. Barry Jones is one of the few politicians of whom Australians are truly fond. Barry Jones Is one of the few politicians of whom Australians are truly fond Token Pr: Relational Indentifying Process Value 2. Premier Kennet and CSR are wrong Premier Kennet and CSR Are wrong Carrier Pr :Relational Attributive Process Attributive Universitas Sumatera Utara

2.2.6 Existential Processes

Enggins 2004:238 states that, “Existential Processes represent experience by positing that ‘there was is something’. As we know that ‘there’ will have two meanings, if ‘there’ word shows a location, it is not involved in existential process but in circumstances, for example 1. There is a sense of community and a fighting spirit often missing from the sleeker suburbs. There is a sense of community and a fighting spirit often missing from the sleeker suburbs Pr : Existential Existent Cir loc: place 2. There are only two reasons why Werribee has been selected as the site for this toxic dump . There are only two reasons why Werribee has selected as the site for this toxic dump Pr : Existential Existent Universitas Sumatera Utara CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY OF ANALYSIS

3.1 Research method