Womens Leadership The Debatable Issue That Never ends in Indonesia Pesantren Islamic Boarding School Siti KholifahM.Si .Ph .D1

Editor

Dharam Vir

Contemporary Social Sciences

Volume 24, Number 3 (July-September), 2015

RESEARCH FOUNDATION INTERNATIONAL (INDIA)

Affiliated to United Nations Organization (UNO)

(An Autonomous, Registered (1972), Recognized Charitable Organization of Social Scientists, Authors, Journalists and Social Activists)

Founder

Editorial Board

FOUNDER

Padma Shri S. S. Shashi, Executive Chairman, Research Foundation International (India) and Former Director General, Publications Division, Government of India, ‘Anusandhan’, B-4/245, Safdarjung Enclave, New Delhi–110 029, India.

EDITOR

Dharam Vir, Former Head, Department of Post-graduate Studies and Research in Sociology, Nanakchand Anglo Sanskrit College, CCS University, Meerut–250 004, India. ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Sanjeev Mahajan, Department of Post-graduate Studies and Research in Sociology, Nanakchand Anglo Sanskrit College, Ch. Charan Singh University, Meerut–250 004, India. Richa Singh, Secretary (Academics), Social Science Division, Research Foundation International (India), Delhi–110 029, India.

MANAGING EDITOR

Kamlesh Mahajan, Department of Sociology, Ismail National Mahila Post-graduate College, Ch. Charan Singh University, Meerut–250 004, India.

BOOK REVIEW EDITOR

S. K. Gupta, Professor of Sociology (Retired), Panjab University, Chandigarh–160 014, India.

CONSULTING EDITORS

Dr. A. K. Singh (Assistant Coordinator, IGNOU Centre, Rohini, Delhi); Prof. B. K. Nagla (M. D. University, Rohtak); Prof. Bhoumik Deshmukh (University of Pune, Pune); Prof. Ho Chin Siong (Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia); Prof. I. P. Singh (Former Head of Anthropology, Delhi University, Delhi); Prof. I. S. Chauhan (Former Vice-Chancellor, Barakatulla University, Bhopal); Dr. László Vasa, (Faculty of Economics and Social Sciences, Szent István University, Hungary); Dr. Mamta Singh (Academic Counsellor, IGNOU Centre, Rohini, Delhi); Prof. Neelam Grewal (Dean Postgraduate Studies, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana); Dr. R. W. Sherman, (Adjunct Associate Professor, Silberman School of Social Work, New York); Prof. S. S. Sharma (CCS University, Meerut); Prof. S. K. Gupta (Panjab University, Chandigarh); Prof. Satya Prakash (Department of Law, N. A. S. College, Meerut); Prof. Wang Xiaoyi (Director, Rural and Industrial Sociology, Institute of Sociology, Chinese Academic of Social Sciences, Beijing, China).

ISSN 0302-9298

World Copyrights of articles published in CSS are controlled by Contemporary Social Sciences, 1972. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form without written permission of the Editor.

Contents

1. Documentation of the Male Ornaments of Punjab through Last Ten Decades

M. Khullar, S. Bains and N. Grewal 1

2. Women’s Leadership : The Debatable Issue that never ends in Indonesian Pesantren (Islamic Boarding School)

Siti Kholifah 13

3. Unethical Food Marketing to Children

Malti 25

4. Extent of Problems faced by Female Sewing Machine Workers

Neha Gahlot, Manju Mehta, Kiran Singh 33

5. Consumer Acceptance of Prepared Patchwork Cushion Covers with Kantha Embroidery

Chhavi Gangwar and Harinder Kaur Saggu 41

6. The Impact of Employee Attitudes toward Social Media on Employee Engagement with Computer-Mediated Communication considered as a Moderatoring Factor

Min-Li Hung, I-Feng Lee and Zih-Yu Chen 51

7. Evaluation of the Prepared kurtis on the basis of the Consumer Acceptance

Manpreet Kaurand Kanwaljit Kaur Brar 61

8. Globalization and its Impact on Rural India

Rangoli Chandra and Renu 71

9. Smocking - A Magnificent Endeavour

Shikha Bajaj and Harminder Kaur Saini 83

10. The Role of Psychological Capital to Organizational Commitment of Tenured Employees

Anne C. Camit, Ma. Socorro C. Bacay and Lesil E. Artista 95 11. Role of NABARD in the Development of Agriculture Sector in India

V. K. Gautam and Yogesh Kumar 109

12. Development of Jewellery From Left Overs

G. Kaurand D. Kaur 117

13. Adolescents’ Personality Traits and Attitudes towards Mate Selection

Mukta Garg and Pratima 127

13. A Content and Critical Discourse Analysis ...Terrorist Attack in Kenya

Journal of National Development

Aims and Scope

The Journal of National Development (JND) is an interdisciplinary bi-annual peer reviewed & refereed international journal committed to the ideals of a ‘world community’ and ‘universal brotherhood’. The Journal is a joint effort of like-minded scholars in the field of social research. Its specific aims are to identify, to understand and to help the process of nation-building within the framework of a ‘world community’ and enhance research across the social sciences (Sociology, Anthropology, Political Science, Psychology, History, Geography, Education, Economics, Law, Communication, Linguistics) and related disciplines like like all streams of Home Science, Management, Computer Science, Commerce as well as others like Food Technology, Agricultural Technology, Information Technology, Environmental Science, Dairy Science etc. having social focus/implications.. It focuses on issues that are global and on local problems and policies that have international implications. By providing a forum for discussion on important issues with a global perspective, the JND is a part of unfolding world wide struggle for establishing a just and peaceful world order. Thus, the JND becomes a point of confluence for the rivulets from various disciplines to form a mighty mainstream gushing towards the formulation and propagation of a humanistic world- view.

Publication Schedule

The Journal of National Development is published in volumes of approximately 250-300 pages, divided into two bi-annual issues–summer and winter. Besides, a special issue in Hindi is also published every year to meet the demand of social scientists, both research scholars and teachers of Hindi speaking states of India.

Subscription and Business Correspondence

The annual subscription is ` _{1000 in India and US$ 60 abroad, including postage by} Speed-Post/Airmail. Special issue in Hindi is free with annual subscription. All the subscriptions must be prepaid in favour of The Journal of National Development, payable at Meerut.

ISSN 0972-8309; NAAS Rating : 2.50; IBI FACTOR : 3.46

All correspondence pertaining to subscription, change of address, purchase of back numbers, books for review and advertisements should be addressed to :

The Managing Editor

Journal of National Development

D-59, Shastri Nagar, Meerut-250 004 (India)

Tel : 91+121-2763765, 2770765; Mobile : 91+9412200765, 91+99997771669 <e-mail : managingeditor@jndmeerut.org>

1

Documentation of the Male Ornaments of

Punjab through Last Ten Decades

M. Khullar*, S. Bains** and N. Grewal***

Documentation of the ornaments worn by men of Punjab was done to study the changes in designs, styles, embellishments and materials used in ornaments through last ten decades. It was noticed that during the period of 1900-1930, very heavy and medium-weight ornaments of gold, silver and bronze were used by male. Beads were widely used in ornaments. Mostly floral designs with different styles were used in the jewellery of this period. In the period from 1930-1960 some changes were noticed in the type of metals used for ornaments. Heavy and medium-weight ornaments of silver metal were observed to be in great use but less as compared to earlier decades during this period. During the period from 1960-1990, it was noticed that floral and animal designs were changed into the modified geometrical designs. While during the period from 1990 onwards, motifs and designs were totally changed in ornaments. Geometrical and abstracts designs/motifs were observed in the ornaments. Cheaper metals were used more in ornaments in place of gold and silver.

[Keywords : Ornaments, Generations, Traditional, Significant change]

1.

Background

The ornaments are no less important than clothes in meeting the psychological needs like the frosting on a cake. Accessories give that finished touch, which is indefinable; something called charmand good taste1_{. Ornaments}

CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL SCIENCES, Vol. 24, Number 3 (July-September), 2015 * Research Fellow, Department of Apparel and Textile Science, College of Home Science,

Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004, Punjab (India) E-mail: <sethi manisha@pau.edu>

** Senior Scientist cum Head, Department of Apparel and Textile Science, College of Home-Science, PAU, Ludhiana, Punjab (India) E-mail: <Sandeepct@pau.edu> *** Dean Postgraduate Studies, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab (India)

play a magnificent role in an individual‘s life at all age levels, giving a lot of personal satisfaction. Men and women of Punjab, not only for the enhancement of physical beauty but also for the retainment of the traditional Punjabi culture wear a complete range of traditional jewellery. Traditional ornaments of Punjab are a blend of traditional designs and techniques. It is also a source of communication as a message of love, power, marriage and hierarchy. The richer classes of Punjab wear gold ornaments while poor wear ornaments of silver or other inferior metals looking like gold.

The two important rivers of Punjab Sutlej and Beas, divide the state of Punjab into three distinct zones namely Malwa, Doaba and Majha. Each of these regions has their own dialect lifestyle and socio-cultural traditions including those related to folk arts and crafts. Transportation and communication facilities have narrowed down these distinctions greatly. Technical developments of various kinds have also had an impact on traditional life style. As a result, the traditional crafts of these zones are fast loosing their distinct individuality in terms of motifs, designs and colours being used. It is imperative to document their distinctive features before they intermingle with each other, thus fading their individuality2_{. Ornaments are not only considered for the purpose of}

adoration, but also as a security in times of contingency. This is because they are often expensive and can be sold whenever there is dire need of money3_{. Rapid}

industrialization, technological improvements, better transport and communi-cation facilities etc. have changed the lifestyles of the people in many countries of the world, creating gaps between developed and the developing countries. The advanced economies and urban areas attracted people leading to mass migrations, for employment. During the twentieth century, Punjab witnessed this trend of outward migration towards the European countries and United States. People experienced the after effects of two world wars, urbanization and the green revolution. All these also had a deep impact on the traditional culture and costume accessories of Punjab.

2.

Objectives of the Paper

In the light of above background, it is essential to gather and document all details from the repositories of our culture, i.e. the older generations and other available sources, If the age-old heritage of Punjab has to be preserved for posterity. The present paper is a humble attempt in this direction. Hence the specific objectives of this study are :

2. To document the male ornaments of Punjab through last ten decades. 3. To study the motifs and designs used in ornaments of Punjab through last

ten decades.

3.

Methodology and Research Design

The study has been carried in the Malwa region of Punjab which includes Ludhiana, Patiala, Moga, Mukatsar districts. Research Design includes :

1. Documentation of male costume accessories : Documentation of costume accessories was done from primary and secondary sources by using snow ball technique.

2. Primary sources : These include Museum of Rural life of Punjab, PAU, Ludhiana and Museum of Punjabi University, Patiala, Sarafa Bazar (gold market) at Ludhiana, Patiala and Mukatsar city, and village Gillan in district Ludhiana. Secondary sources included family photographs, paintings, books, magazines, gazetteers and internet.

3. Selection of respondents : A purposive sampling technique was used to select 60 families of males having three generations living together. Each family consisted of three respondents, i.e. 1st generation (60 yrs & above), 2nd generation (40-60 yrs) and 3rd generation (20-40 yrs). Thus making a total sample of 180 respondents. The required information was collected from the selected respondents regarding the costume accessories, its designs and embellishments used over the three generations by personally interviewing them.

4. Costume accessories-ornaments : The data pertaining to this part of the study has been categorized into the background information of the male respondents, their description and costume accessories (ornaments) worn by them in last ten decades.

5. Background information of Respondents : Majority of the respondents in the 1st_{, 2}nd _{and 3}rd _{generation belonged to the age group of 70-80, 40-50 and}

20-30 yrs, respectively. Maximum number of respondents in the 1st

generation were illiterate, 2nd _{generation studied up to secondary.}

Respondents in the 3rd _{generation were graduates or postgraduates. Most}

of the respondents were from Sikh families and had monthly income of 30-60 thousand.

4.

Description of Ornaments worn by Males

The documented ornaments worn by male respondents through last ten decades have been depicted in Fig. 1 on next page. The ornaments worn fall in following categories :

4.1 Head Ornaments

u Sarpesh : the jewelled aigrette worn in front of the turban. u Kutbiladar : an oval pendant worn over the forehead. u Kalgi : a plume in jeweled setting.

u Mukat : a head dress worn by Hindus at wedding.

u Turah or marwarid : tassels of pearls worn on the turban.

4.2 Ear Ornaments

u Bala : very large ring worn by Khatris, Sikhs and Dogras, they have a pearl strung on the gold wire of which they are made.

u Murki : smaller earrings of the same shape. u Dur : a small earring with three studs. u Birbali : a broad earring with three studs. u Durichah : an ear-ring with pendant tassel.

4.3 Neck Ornaments

u Mala : a necklace of large beads handing down long and loose.

u Kantha : this fits rather close to the neck, the pendant may be omitted. u Nam : a pendent, round or star shaped.

u Tawiz : a square amulet, jeweled or otherwise.

u Takhti : a flat square plate engraved with figures, etc.

u Chandarmah : a large gold flat medal suspended by a single ring. u Zanjiri : a set of chains.

4.4 Arm Ornaments

u Ponchi : a series of strings of shells or small gold elongated beads worn on the wrist.

u Bazuband : a broad belt-like ornament generally mounted on silk and tied on the upper arm.

u Kara or Gokru : a bracelet of stiff metal, when the edges are serrated, it is called gokru.

4.5 Finger Ornaments

u Challa : aplain hoop or whole hoop ring, with or without stones, being of gold or silver, but the same all round, challas are worn on the toe also. u Angutha : a big ring with a broad face worn on the toe.

u Anguthi : a ring set with stones also called mundri. u Birhamgand : broad ring.

5.

Findings

The findings of this study are presented in following sub-heads :

5.1 Costume Accessories (Ornaments) Information

The details of the ornaments adorn on different body parts and the information regarding the type, designs and metals preferred for ornaments by the three generations of respondents has been discussed below :

5.1.1 Head ornaments

Table-1 below elicits that these ornaments were worn only during formal occasions like on marriages or functions. The majority of the male respondents (53.33%) in the 1st _{generation during their marriage wore each kalgi and}

turah/marwarid. In the 2nd _{generation, majority of the respondents (56.66%)}

adorned Kalgi followed by 16.66 % who wore sehra on their marriages, whereas in the 3rd _{generation, good number (28.33%) of the respondents wore Kalgi followed}

by 5.00 % who wore mukat as head ornament. As a result, a marked change in the use of head ornaments by all the three generations of the males differs significantly.

Table-1 : Details of Ornaments worn by the Respondents on different Body Parts (n=60 each generation) Ornament Category Generation

Head ornaments 1st Generation 2nd Generation 3rd Generation

Sarpesh 07 (11.66) 09 (15.00) 01 (1.66)

Kalgi 32 (53.33) 34 (56.66) 17 (28.33)

Mukat 03 (5.00) 05 (8.33) 03 (5.00)

Turah or marwarid 32 (53.33) 30 (50.00) 13 (21.66)

Sehra 10 (16.66) 10 (16.66) 06 (10.00)

Ear Ornaments

Bala 18 (30.0) — 03 (5.00)

Murki 05 (8.33) — —

Dur 01 (1.66) — —

Small bali — 01 (1.66) 03 (5.00)

Stud — — 05 (8.33)

Neck ornaments

Mala 08 (13.33) 06 (10.00) —

Kantha 35 (58.33) 24 (40.00) 11 (18.33)

Tawiz 24 (40.00) 07 (11.66) 08 (13.33)

Chandarmah 04 (6.66) 11 (18.33) 17 (28.33)

Zanjiri 11 (18.33) 12 (20.00) 20 (33.33)

Arm ornaments

Ponchi 02 (3.33) 02 (3.33) —

Baju band 16 (26.66) 05 (8.33) 12 (20.00)

Taviz 23 (38.33) — —

Kara 58 (96.66) 58 (96.66) 52 (86.66)

Bracelate — - 22 (36.66)

Finger ornaments

Challa 16 (26.66) 04 (6.66) 10 (16.66)

Angutha 05 (8.33) 01 (1.66) 04 (6.66)

Anguthi 60 (100.0) 60 (100.0) 49 (81.66)

Birhamgand 23 (38.33) 11 (18.33) 01 (1.66)

5.1.2 Ear Ornaments

The data presented in the Table 1 in concern to ear ornaments indicates that in the 1st _{generation, good number of the respondents (30.00%) wore bala,}

followed by8.33% wore murki in ears.In the 2nd _{generation, scarcely 1.66% used}

ear ornament, which included small bali while in the 3rd _{generation, 8.33% of the}

respondents wore studs.

5.1.3 Neck Ornaments

Table-1 depicts that in the 1st _{generation, majority (58.33%) of the}

respondents wore kantha, followed by 18.33% who adorned. In the 2nd

generation, good number of the respondents (40.00%) wore kantha and minimum number of the respondents (20.00%) wore zanjiri on special occasions whereas in the case of 3rd_{generation,zanjiri was worn on special occasions by 46.66 % of the}

respondents followed by 28.33% of the respondents who wore modern

chandarmah. The results point toward a change in the use of neck ornaments by the male respondents on both daily wear as well as special occasions. As the kantha of youngsters has now been replaced by zanjiri.

5.1.4 Arm Ornaments

It is clear from the Table 1 that in the 1st _{generation maximum number of the}

respondents (96.66%) wore kara regularly, followed by 26.66% of the respondents

who wore bajuband. Maximum number of the respondents (96.66%) in the 2nd

generation also wore kara while same in the case of 3rd _{generation, majority}

(86.66%) wore kara, followed by 36.66% who wore bracelets of different metals/materials in their daily routine.

It is evident that the kara is being used by the maximum number of the respondents among all the three generations. However, its use is on the decline, but the change is not as much as with other traditional ornaments. The fact can be attributed to the religious sanctions attached to the use of kara.

5.1.5 Finger Ornaments

The results showed in the Table 1 regarding finger ornaments elucidates that all the men in the 1st _{generation wore anguthi, followed by 38.33% who wore}

birhamgand. In the 2nd _{generation, 18.33 per cent of the respondents wore}

birhamgand whereas in the 3rd _{generation, maximum number of the respondents}

(81.66%) worn anguthi. About 3-4 decades back males used many of the Documentation of the Male Ornaments of Punjab through Last Ten Decades 7

ornaments for different body parts but presently only fingers rings were worn by them4_.

5.2 Preference for Weight of Ornaments by the Respondents

Data given in Table-2 on next page shows that a good number of

respondents in the 1st _{generation (48.33 and 35.00%) wore heavy weight}

ornaments on special occasions and daily routine, whereas, no respondent of this generation wore light weight and very light weight ornaments on the special occasions. In the 2nd _{generation, it was recorded that (21.66%) of the respondents}

wore heavy-weight ornaments on both daily as well as on special occasions, whereas, in the case of 3rd _{generation, light weight and medium weight}

ornaments were worn by half of the respondents (50.00% each) on daily and special occasions, respectively.

Table-2 : Preference for Weight of Ornaments by the Respondents

(n=60 each generation)

Type of jewellery according to weight

1st Generation _{2nd Generation} 3rd Generation

Casual Formal Casual Formal Casual Formal

Heavy 21 (35.00) 29 (48.33) 13 (21.66) 13 (21.66) — 01 (1.66)

Medium 20 (33.33) 17 (28.33) 21 (35.00) 25 (41.66) 27 (45.00) 30 (50.00)

Light 19 (31.66) — 13 (21.66) 09 (15.00) 30 (50.00) 27 (45.00)

Very light — — 10 (16.66) — 01 (1.66) 01 (1.66)

*Multiple Responses *Figures in parentheses indicates percentages

5.3 Preferences of Motifs/Designs in Ornaments by Respondents

The result shown in Table-3 on next page reveals that respondents in the 1st_,

2nd _{and 3}rd _{generation (53.33, 73.33 and 83.33%, respectively) preferred}

Table-3 : Preferences of Motifs/Designs in Ornaments

(n=60 each generation)

Motifs/Designs 1st Generation 2nd Generation 3rd Generation

Floral 29 (48.33) 18 (30.00) 02 (3.33)

Birds 01 (1.66) — 04 (6.66)

Animals 09 (15.00) 04 (6.66) —

Geometrical 32 (53.33) 44 (73.33) 50 (83.33)

Abstract 08 (13.33) 18 (30.00) 25 (41.66)

*Multiple Responses *Figures in parentheses indicates percentages

5.4 Preference for material in ornaments by the respondents

It is evident from the data contained in table-4 below that the maximum number of the respondents in the 1st _{and 2}nd _{generation (80.00 and 63.33%}

respectively) preferred gold ornaments, whereas in the 3rd _{generation majority of}

the respondents (53.33%) preferred ornaments of other metals except gold and silver.

Table 4-Preference for Material in Ornaments

(n=60 each generation)

Material Generation

1st Generation 2nd Generation 3rd Generation

Gold 48 (80.00) 38 (63.33) 24 (40.00)

Silver 22 (36.66) 19 (31.66) 20 (33.33)

Other metals 02 (3.33) 12 (20.00) 32 (53.33)

*Multiple Responses *Figures in parentheses indicates percentages

6.

Conclusion

In the 1st _{generation, all the men wore finger, neck and arm ornaments,}

while in the 2nd _{generation; maximum number of respondents wore ornaments}

1900-1930

1930-1960

1960-1990 1990- onwards

Documentation of ornaments worn by male respondents through last ten decades

on their arms, followed by neck ornaments, whereas in the case of 3rd _generation,

maximum number of respondents wore arm ornaments followed by the respondents who wore ornaments in fingers. It was noticed that in the 1st _{and 2}nd

generation, majority of the men preferred to wore heavy weight ornaments on special occasions as well as in daily life whereas in the 3rd _generation

light-weight ornaments were preferred by all the respondents in daily and special occasions.

Majority of the male respondents from all three generations preferred geometrical designs/motifs in ornaments. It was observed that in the 1st _{and 2}nd

generation, majority preferred to wear gold ornaments whereas in the 3rd

generation respondents preferred to wear the ornaments of metals other than gold and silver. Significant change was found in the wearing of ornaments by all the three generations of male respondent’s, this shows that there is less usage of traditional ornaments by the 2nd _{and 3}rd _{generation of male respondents of}

Punjab. The scrutiny of the data revealed that the 3rd _{generation respondents} Documentation of the Male Ornaments of Punjab through Last Ten Decades 11

were not even aware, of the traditional ornaments and their names. It was also observed that the up gradation in educational status, change in life style, mass media, rise in gold prices are the major factors found responsible for significant change in the use of traditional ornaments in present generation. People of present generation have shifted their interest in use of ornaments made from beads and shells.

References

1. Dar, S. N., Costumes of India and Pakistan, Bombay : D. B. Taraporevala Sons and Co. Pvt Ltd., 1969, 56-75.

2. Kaur, N., Production and marketing of durries in different socio cultural zones of Punjab, Ph D Dissertation. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India, 2002.

3. Sidhu, R., A comparative study on costumes of Hindu and Sikh communities of rural Ludhiana before and after independence, M. Sc. Thesis, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India, 1984.

4. Suri, S, Punjab District Gazetteer-Ludhiana, Chandigarh, Punjab : Controller of

Printing and Stationery, 1970. _ê

2

Women’s Leadership : The Debatable

Issue that never ends in Indonesian

Pesantren (Islamic Boarding School)

Siti Kholifah*

Leadership is one of the gendered patterns in Indonesia, particularly in pesantren (Islamic boarding school) as one of institutions from which Muslim scholars emerge, and kyai (male leader in pesantren) becomes the reference point and political intent. Pesantren still have differences about leadership, particularly in relation to providing meaning and interpreting Koran, verse An-Nisa’:34. This verse was the justification for males dominating females. This research focus to examine the discourse of pesantren related to women’s leadership in public sphere including in politic area. Using feminist and Foucault theory, this research was conducted in As-sa’idiyyah 2 Pesantren as a modern pesantren, Ilmu Al-Qur’an Pesantren as a traditional pesantren, and Mu’allimin-Muallimaat Pesantren as modern pesantren based on Muhammadiyah. This research was qualitative study with used phenomenology approach. This research shows the discourse women’s leadership in three pesantren still become debatable, although in one pesantren (As-sa’idiyyah 2), women as a leader in pesantren is exist. However, the continuing women’s leadership is controversial. Mu’allimin-Mu’allimaat, women also become a leader in female school, but women’s leadership tends to as segregation system. Ilmu Al-Qur’an, only men can be a leader in this pesantren. The kyai believes that Islamic law explains the first characteristic of leader must be man.

[Keywords : Women’s leadership, Pesantren, Gender]

1.

Introduction

Leadership is one of the gendered patterns in pesantren (Islamic boarding school) that is still a debated issue in the Muslim community in relation to

CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL SCIENCES, Vol. 24, Number 3 (July-September), 2015 * Lecturer, Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Brawijaya

interpreting Koran verse An-Nisa’: 34). Mostly in the Koran in Indonesia to this verse is “males are the leaders of females, because the God has blessed males with more than female, and because males spend their wealth on females...”. This verse was the justification for males dominating females. For example, when Megawati became the Indonesian presidential candidate in 1999, some of the Islamic parties, including PPP (Partai Persatuan Pembanguan/United Development Party) and KAMI (Partai Kebangkitan Muslim Indonesia/Indonesian Muslim Awakening Party), disagreed with having a female president based on this verse. PKB(Partai Kebangkitan Bangsa/Nation Awakening Party), however encouraged women to stand for president, and joined with PDI-P (Partai Demokrasi Indonesia-Perjuangan/Indonesian Democracy Party-Struggle) to promote Megawati as presidential candidate . The situation in 1999 showed how Islamic teaching was became made a justification in the campaign of presidential candidates, and Islamic teaching was interpreted for political interest.

Pesantren, as one of institutions from which Muslim scholars emerge, still have differences about leadership, particularly in relation to providing meaning and interpreting verse An-Nisa’ : 34. Generally, pesantren design own curriculum, although the Indonesian Government has regulated Islamic schools (madrasah), so curriculum content comprises 70% general subjects and 30% religious subjects.However, some of the pesantren have developed a curriculum in response to changes in contemporary society, while nevertheless retaining pesantren values and ideology. As well the interpretation of Islamic teaching is based on the kyai’s (male leader in pesantren) opinion, some of the pesantren interpret Islamic teaching with gender values, and some of them interpret it that is dominated by patriarchal values. Moreover, commonly the kyai’s opinion becomes the reference point and political intent in local or national elections. Moreover, the kyai’s political preferences are followed at grassroots level.

Based on this situation, this research focus to examine the discourse of pesantren related to women’s leadership in public sphere including in politic area. This study is conducted in the three pesantren that have different characteristic and have their own distinct curriculum. Firstly, As-sa’idiyyah 2 Pesantren is a modern pesantren associated withNU/Nahdlatul Ulama/Revival of the Religious Scholars (the largest traditionalist Islamic organization in Indonesia, founded in 1926). Secondly, Ilmu Al-Qur’an Pesantren is a traditional pesantren associated with NU, and Mu’allimin-Muallimaat Pesantren as modern pesantren based on Muhammadiyah (the largest modernist Islamic organization in Indonesia, founded in 1912).

2.

Review of Literature

Discourse is the central concept of Foucault’s analysis that determines what can be said and thought, but also who can speak and when, and with what power or authority. Discourse is related to the social processes that produce meaning which develops not from language but from institutions and power relations. Discourse has provided a new perspective in gender issues that explains how power is constituted in multiple ways between women, between men and between men and women. Hence, post-structuralism has assisted feminist studies to analyze identity and power in societies that have complex characteristics.

According to Francis, post-structuralism deconstructs the dominant discourse, exercises a power relationship, and deconstructs concepts of morality, justice and truth. Moreover Francis asserts that the development of post-structuralism is related to feminist research in two main areas. First, discourse analysis is utilized to investigate gender diversity in society. Second, feminism is developed as an interpretative community through openness and respect for others within that community.

Furthermore, the educational system maintains the social appropriation of discourse. It therefore controls access to various kinds of discourse. The distribution of discourse in education is constructed by the examination and the whole power and knowledge. Arguably, students are constructed through passive and active processes through internal or external authority figures . Thus the relationship of power and knowledge in education is not only concerned with an imbalance between teacher and student, but also related to the power vested in the teacher by virtue of her or his knowledge of the student . Power has both a negative and positive effect, not only to be resisted, but also pleasurable and emancipatory. Moreover, power/knowledge relations have a gender dimension. A Foucaultian approach can provide an alternative to feminist analyses that adopts over-monolithic notions of male power and male control of women, or which retain utopian visions of the total reconstruction or autonomy of female desire. The view of feminists and Foucault represent different perspectives but they also share views about power and knowledge. Moreover, Foucault’s theory has been of particular interest to feminists. First, Foucault’s theory attends to the productive nature of power and his emphasis on the social body in relation to power is compatible with developing feminist insight about the politics of Women’s Leadership : The Debatable Issue that never ends in Indonesian Pesantren 15

personal life. Second, Foucault was one of the most politically connected poststructuralists. Finally, Foucault’s theory and feminist theory merge to analyze research and provide implications in adopting the methodology.

3.

Methodology

This study was qualitative research with a phenomenology approach. The data collection was conducted in some methods: in-depth interview, observation, and documentation. Firstly, in-depth interview were selected by the purposive method with characteristic of informants : pesantren leader, pesantren teachers, and pesantren students. Secondly, observation and documentation directly from pesantren related to the discourse about pesantren leadership include women’s leadership. All the data were cross checked as a process to find significant data which a part of triangulation.

I examined in three pesantren in Java : As-sa’idiyyah 2 Pesantren in Jombang, East Java, Ilmu Al-Qur’an Pesantren in Malang, East Java, and Mu’allimin-Mu’allimaat Pesantren in Yogyakarta. The rationale for choosing these pesantren is they have different characteristic: traditional pesantren associated with NU, modern pesantren associated with NU, and modern pesantren based on Muhammadiyah. NU and Muhammadiyah is two largest Islamic organizations in Indonesia that have influence to social, cultural and political issues.

4.

Finding and Discussion

4.1 Mu’allimin and Mu’allimaat Pesantren : Men and Women Leader as

Segregation System

Mu’allimin and Mu’allimaat were founded by Kyai Haji Ahmad Dahlan in 1920. This pesantren is located in Yogyakarta city with Indonesian culture dominates local identity (Javanese). The students of Mu’allimin and Mu’allimaat come from all regions in Indonesia, and the overall majority of students have urban backgrounds. Students total 2036 (47% Mu’allimaat and 53% Mu’allimin students).

Mu’allimin and Mu’allimaat are characterised as modern reformist and open-minded toward social and political issues in local and national spheres, as well as being open to outsiders. Moreover, Mu’allimin and Mu’allimaat are professional institutions, where teaching staff are qualified, and the role of the founder family is not dominant. Mu’allimin and Mu’allimaat segregate male and

female students, not only in boarding school but in the broader school system (Mu’allimin for male students and Mu’allimaat for female students) and have a separate organizational structure. The boarding school system is also different from other pesantren in Java; in Mu’allimin and Mu’allimaat the dormitories and the house of the leader are separate. In addition, the position of the leader, ustadz/ustadzah(male/female teacher) and students have similar positions and professional relations, although the leader still has precedence.

In Mu’allimaat, female leadership is still a sensitive issue although it is led by a woman. But, the Mu’allimaat community tends to agree that a woman should not lead a mixed gender community, rather that women can only lead women. Hence, the discourse about the ideal female leader in Mu’allimaat is introduced gradually to Mu’allimaat students as Ustadzah Unik explains :

I do not come from a pesantren, I grew up in Muhammadiyah from the Youth organization and am accustomed to being open minded. And then, I worked in a pesantren that is identical to insularity, so I must gradually introduce new notions including about women’s leadership. Although I have colleagues from the Majelis Tarjih (The division in Muhammadiyah that has the authority to create religious opinion and advice relating to contemporary issues or problems in the Muslim community), I regularly discuss this issue. But, in principle the person who has the best qualities, male or female, can be a leader. So, I talk with my students along these lines. I have explained to members of the IPM that the leadership concept does distinguish between male and female. It does not mean if you are female, you cannot do anything. The important thing is to play a role in the Muslim community, to lead oneself, and lead other people. (Interview with Ustadzah Unik, female teacher in Mu’allimaat, 27 September, 2010)

The leadership in Mu’allimaat is a model of how women can be leaders, but only in a community of women. Hence, Ustadzah Unik emphasises the capability and quality as characteristics of leadership without citing gender. Mu’allimaat tends to educate and encourage leadership skills of students as asserted by Latifah :

Outside the Mu’allimaat, I often listen to debates about the distinction between male and female, but in the Mu’allimaat we do not compare male and female, but we know a woman also can be a leader, women also have skills. So, in Mu’allimaat, we learn a lot of things that educate our leadership, such as organization and competition. We are independent; we Women’s Leadership : The Debatable Issue that never ends in Indonesian Pesantren 17

can lift a table and this is common. (Interview with Latifah, female student in Mu’allimaat, 1 October, 2010)

Latifah believes Mu’allimaat enables female students to become independent personalities who can be leaders. However, the perspective of Mu’allimin students is different. They tend to reject the prospect of women as leaders because Islamic values emphasize men as leaders; and if a woman leads this is caused by the unavailability of a man as Ridwan explains :

In Islam, the leader must be a man; this means women cannot be a leader. Women can be a leader only in emergency conditions. So, when there is a male with the capability and high quality, why should the man not become the leader? I felt disappointed when Megawati was president. (Interview with Ridwan, male santri in Mu’allimin, 27 September, 2010)

Similarly, Taufik also asserted that female leaders tend to have more weakness than advantage because of their domestic responsibilities as explained below :

Why in Islam should a woman not be a leader? For example, a woman is a leader of an organization; she must attend meetings from morning until night. If a woman is a leader, does not she think of her obligations to her family, because in her house, she also has responsibilities. Because of her organization, she does not go home until night; how is this seen by society? This is not useful. In Islamic values, the prevention of damage is preferred to the pursuit of advantage. (Interview with Taufik, male student in Mu’allimin, 30 September, 2010)

The domination of males in Mu’allimin as leaders, teachers and staff perpetuates masculine culture and values. Muallimin and Mu’allimaat students observe and learn about gender roles through their studies. However, the female students in Mu’allimaat are more conscious of the gender values promoted in both Mu’allimin and Mu’allimaat. The gender segregation in these institutions embeds patriarchal values because the Mu’allimaat system is still dominated by these values, represented in the curriculum and the rules, and women who are educated in this environment tend to preserve the patriarchal system.

4.2 As-sa’idiyyah 2 Pesantren has a figure Women’s Leadership

As-sa’idiyyah 2 is located in Jombang, East Java, 100 km from Surabaya, the capital of East Java Province. As-sa’idiyyah 2 is dominated by Javanese culture

rather than Indonesian national values; as well patriarchal culture is embedded in the pesantren’s tradition. As-sa’idiyyah 2 has 120 santri (student) in total : 51% female and 49% male. The santri mostly come from East Java or Jakarta, Bandung or other cities in Java, and predominantly from middle and lower class family backgrounds.

As-sa’idiyyah 2 was founded in 2004 by Kyai Hasan and Nyai Umdatul Choirot. Before As-sa’idiyyah 2 is founded, Kyai Hasan and Nyai Umda managed his father’s pesantren. Nyai Umda also replaced her father’s position as head of school in the MAI (Madrasah Aliyah Al-I’dadiyyah/Senior high school Al-I’dadiyyah) in 2002 who leads mixed gender community where in pesantren community this situation is not common.

In As-sa’idiyyah 2, the concept of leadership is not the only discussion point in class, but also the leadership of Nyai Umda in MAI as a female leadership figure, as well as the response of pesantren community to the opportunities for and obstacles to women leaders. Moreover, the leadership of Nyai Umda in MAI actually is controversial for other reasons: first, she has a brother who usually replaces the father and second, MAI is an institution with both males and females which is uncommon in terms of a female leading a male and female community. This is discussed by Ustadzah Riska, female teacher in MAI :

Initially, the leader in MAI was the brother of Nyai Umda, it is inconceivable that a women could be a leader here. But I don’t know why, probably Nyai Umda has outstanding skills and experience. At that time, Nyai Umda had a conflict with her brother. It was complicated, because one of Nyai Umda’s family frequently was absent. (Interview with Ustadzah Riska, female teacher in MAI and As-sa’idiyyah 2, 2 December, 2010).

As a person who grew up in pesantren, Ustadzah Riska has the perception that a female cannot be a leader in a male and female community. According to Nyai Umda, her father, Kyai Nasrullah saw her as a persistent and consistent person, with strong leadership capacities and argued that the meaning of arrijalu and an-nisa in verse An-Nisa: 34 emphasize character, rather than sex :

My father told me, don’t misunderstand the term arrijalu. The important thing is resoluteness. My father knew me as a persistent person; I have fought all the way to the capital city. I do everything although I have lots of conflict, and I also had conflict with my father. I read my father’s yellow Women’s Leadership : The Debatable Issue that never ends in Indonesian Pesantren 19

book related to the concept of leadership, but the social structure has persisted. (Interview with Nyai Umda, the female leader of As-sa’idiyyah 2, 1 December, 2010)

Kyai Nasrullah suggested the meaning of the term arrijal refers to masculine character, not males, and an-nisa’ refers to feminine character, not females. Consequently, either can be a leader, if they have the characteristics of logical thinking, strength, and independence. Hence, the interpretation of the verse An-Nisa: 34, also has became a doctrine by Nyai Umda to develop gender equity in pesantren community, as shown by a male santri when I asked about the interpretation of this verse :

Nyai Umda always explains that arrijal is not only for males, but is more about masculine characteristics; sometimes a female has masculine characteristics that are arrijal, sometimes a male has feminine characteristics and is an-nisa’. So, a male is not superior, sometimes he has a more subordinate position than a female. Mostly, salaf (traditional) kyai believe that women are led by men. When Nyai Umda explained this verse, my thinking was opened up, in reality there different interpretations. (Interview with Nafis, male santri in As-sa’idiyyah 2, 1 December, 2010) Others believe that Nyai Umda’s perception of Islamic teaching is accurate as Ustadzah Riska (who studied in Cairo) explained :

I understood from Nyai Umda, about yellow book and their interpretation, that women do not have to be inferior and leaders do not have to be men. In fact, Nyai Umda is also a woman activist. What we see reflected in Nyai Umda is true. (Interview with Ustadzah Riska, female teacher in MAI and As-sa’idiyyah 2, 2 December, 2010)

The leadership of Nyai Umda is unusual, particularly in Bahrul Ulum, because her father provided a strong recommendation that she lead MAI. This makes her an agent of change, not only in relation to her position, but to encourage gender equity and women’s empowerment with the kyai’s approval. However, not everyone in Bahrul Ulum agree that women should be leaders. Some argued that whilst women can have public leadership roles, their domestic roles should take precedence as Ustadz Yusuf explains :

I think it does not matter if a woman becomes a leader, as long as she can manage all her responsibilities, including the family. If a woman is in the political area, and then she becomes a leader, she cannot maintain her

responsibilities with her family, Like the Javanese saying: “looking for something small, losing something substantial”. I think the essential responsibility for women is their family; other matters are optional, if meritorious (sunnah). However, some people say that verse An-Nisa’: 34 only relates to prayers, in which women cannot become an imam (a leader). There is no Islamic teaching that says women can lead men at prayers together. I had been seeking an argument in Islam, because there has been much debate about this. I had been looking for a hadith, but until now, I have not found anything, and if I find it, I am not sure how to choose an interpretation. I prefer to choose the opinion that man must lead women. (Interview with Ustadz Yusuf, male teacher in MAN Bahrul Ulum, 4 December, 2010)

Although, he agrees with women becoming leaders, this excludes mixed prayers. Ustadz Yusuf as both teacher and kyai has the authority to choose Islamic teaching or the material in yellow book that he considers significant. This situation shows how individual males invest in the patriarchal system.

4.3 Ilmu Al-Qur’an Pesantren : Man must be a Leader

Ilmu Al-Qur’an is located in Singosari, a suburb of Malang, and 80 km from Surabaya. This pesantren is a family institution under the patriarchal control of the pesantren leader. Ilmu Al-Qur’an has developed own curriculum that not associated with Indonesian government. The leader of the pesantren is like a king in a small kingdom and he is thought to have barokah (blessing or reward from God). The santri of the pesantren show great respect towards the leader. The santri of Ilmu Al-Qur’an come from the region in East Java and other province in Indonesia.

Ilmu Al-Qur’an is lead by Kyai Alwi Basori who senior kyai in Malang region. As family institution, his sons of Kyai Alwi also teach and manage this pesantren.This situation is method to cadre her family become his successor. One of the sons who teaching staff in Ilmu Al-Qur’an is Ustadz Luthfi Alwi Basori. He is also active in some Islamic organizations in Malang.

According to Ustadz Luthfi Alwi Basori, the characteristic of leader in society should be appropriate by Islamic law as his explanation :

If we discuss about Islamic law, the first characteristic of leader must be man. Because in one of verses in Al-Qur’an explain man for leadership area. So, I believe the opinion from Islamic scholars who say that person Women’s Leadership : The Debatable Issue that never ends in Indonesian Pesantren 21

who has authority and legitimacy became leader is man. Although some of people say not only man became a leader, but in my opinion that have legality as leader is man. Why like that? Because in fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) also give explanation that women have restriction. We follow fiqh, not logical thinking. Women must be restricted from men community. Women cannot lead pray together in man community. This situation is limitation from women. As well as women cannot adzan (provide announcement for praying). In term of leadership, this condition will make difficulties for women when Mosque community needs their leader to attend in Mosque; suddenly their women leader is having menstruation. So, she cannot attend in Mosque. Because of this situation, women cannot appropriate as leader. I am as MUI member, if someday MUI has fatwa that women can be president, I will not follow this fatwa. (Interview with Ustadz Luthfi, male teacher in Ilmu Al-Qur’an, 13 August, 2011)

Ustadz Luthfi interprets the verse An-Nisa’: 34 as textual based on his knowledge and experience that man as a leader for woman. As a result, the characteristic of leader is man. Her experience in Islamic organization such as MUI (Majelis Ulama Indonesia/Indonesian Islamic scholars association), NU in Malang provide understanding about how the style of leadership. In both organizations the leader is always man, and the members of both organization is dominated by men. As well, in Ilmu Al-Qur’an only men can be a leader.

The discourse of leadership in Ilmu Al-Qur’an provide influence to santri, although the political issue never discuss in this institution as explaining Faiz, santri Ilmu Al-Qur’an :

In this pesantren we never discuss about leadership issues, or leadership of Indonesian government. However, in this pesantren we are provided knowledge related to how the ideal characteristic of leader in Islam: firstly, the leader must be a Muslim and Man. So, the leader in Indonesia has been according to this criterion (Interview with Faiz, male santri Ilmu Al-Qur’an, 18 August, 2013).

Pesantren tradition that assert santri should be sami’na wa atho’na (we listen and we obedient) to leader (kyai) and teachers. So, no wonder santri also have similar political discourse with the kyai or kyai’s family. this is because kyai and his family have central position and power in pesantren, as well they are

assumed to have outstanding Islamic knowledge. This condition provides influence the similarities of political discourse among kyai and santri. As Foucault’s opinion (1980) power is complex strategies in society that can observe in discourse.

5.

Conclusion

The discourse women’s leadership in the three pesantren is based on Islamic teaching, experiences and situation in this institution. The interpretation of Islamic teaching in each pesantren is according to pesantren leader. Nyai Umda is head of MAI, she does not offer gender subjects, but she develops gender awareness through the teaching materials for tafsir (Koran exegesis). A similar condition prevails in Mu’allimin and Mu’allimaat, where some of the teachers develop gender awareness through the teaching materials for fiqh. Nyai Umda believe that the interpretation of Islamic teaching with gender values is important to teach in class, without it being written in the curriculum, because they have the authority to maintain subject materials and teaching methods.

But these are unusual teachers using slightly unorthodox methods of drawing attention to the issue of gender in conventional classrooms. In doing so, they subvert the patriarchal norms which are embedded throughout all three pesantren to varying degrees. Their aim is to introduce these perspectives covertly without drawing attention to themselves or their endeavors, and in this way to assistsantri to consider the dynamics of gender in their religious, educational and everyday lives.

References

1. Ball, SJ, ‘Introducing Monsieur Foucault’ in SJ Ball (ed.), Foucault and Education : Disciplines and Knowledge, Routledge, London and New York, 1990, pp. 1-8. 2. Dhofier, Z, The Pesantren Tradition : The Roles of The Kyai in the Maintenance

of Traditional Islam in Java, The Program of Southeast Asian Studies, Arizona, 1999.

3. DJPI-KAR Indonesia, Sejarah Pendidikan Islam dan Organisasi Ditjen Pendidikan Islam, by Indonesia, DJPI-KAR, Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan Islam -Kementerian Agama Republik Indonesia, 2008.

4. Endang, T, Struggling for the Umma : Changing Leadership Roles of Kiai in Jombang, East Java, The Australian National University, 2005.

5. Francis, B, ‘Beyond Postmodernism: Feminist Agency in Education Research’, in B Francis & C Skelton (eds), Investigating Gender : Contemporary Perspectives in Education, Open University Press, Buckingham, Philadelphia, 2001, 65-76. 6. Mu’allimaat 2010a, Data Pendidikan Orang Tua Siswi Madrasah Mu’allimaat

Tahun Pelajaran 2010/2011, Madrasah Mu’allimaat, Yogyakarta

7. ..., Data Siswi Madrasah Mu’allimaat Tahun Pelajaran 2010/2011, Madrasah Mu’allimaat, Yogyakarta, 2010b.

8. Mu’allimin 2010b, Data Pendidikan Orang Tua Siswa Madrasah Mu’allimin Tahun Pelajaran 2010/2011, Madrasah Mu’allimin, Yogyakarta.

9. ..., Data Siswa Madrasah Mu’allimin Tahun Pelajaran 2010/2011, Madrasah Mu’allimin, Yogyakarta, 2010c.

10] Karim, AG, ‘Pesantren in Power : Religious Institutions and Political Recruitment in Sumenap, Madura [Paper in Islamic Education in Indonesia.]’, Review of Indonesian and Malaysian Affairs, vol. 42, no. 1, 2008, 157-84. 11. Kholifah, S, ‘Wacana Santri Perempuan tentang Politik’, Universitas Airlangga,

2005.

12. Pesantren, A-si 2010a, Data Santri Pondok Pesantren As-sa’idiyyah 2 Putra Bahrul Ulum, As-sa’idiyyah 2 Pesantren, Jombang.

13. ..., Data Santri Pondok Pesantren As-sa’idiyyah 2 Putri Bahrul Ulum, As-sa’idiyyah 2 Pesantren, Jombang, 2010b.

14. Paechter, C, Changing School Subjects : Power, Gender and Curriculum, Open University Press, Buckingham, Philadelphia, 2000.

15. Sawicki, J, Disciplining Foucault : Feminism, Power and the Body, Routledge, New York, London, 1991.

16. Srimulyani, E, ‘Muslim Women and Education in Indonesia: The Pondok Pesantren Experience’, Asia Pacific Journal of Education, Vol. 27, No. 1, 2007, 85-99.

17. Suryakusuma, JI, Sex, Power and Nation : an Othology of Writings 1979-2003, Metafor, Jakarta, 2004.

18. Wagiman, S, The Modernization of the Pesantren’s Educational System to Meet the Needs of Indonesian Communities, McGill University, 1997. _ê

3

Unethical Food Marketing to Children

Malti*

The values we impart to our children today, consciously and unconsciously will have a major impart on society tomorrow. If we continue to leave the teaching of values to chance, we are a nation, risk losing as integral piece of our culture altogether. Children are the human resource and assets of a country. They are the most vulnerable section of our country. They need special care and protection, if the future of the nation is to be made secure. Children are the first call on agenda of development not only because young children are the most vulnerable, but because the foundation for life long learning and human development is laid in the crucial early years. Survival, development and growth of a child has to be looked at in a holistic manner and there have to be balanced linkages between education, health and nutrition for proper development of a child. The present paper is an attempt to analyze the Unethical Food Marketing to Children. It has been shown that children should be educated in the science of marketing and businesses and should learn to satisfy needs in a manner which protects and even nurtures children’s right and best interests.

[Keywords : Values, Human resource, Unethical food marketing, authority figures, children’s right and best interests]

India is the home of the largest child population in the world. “Child is the father of man” is an old but true saying because conduct & character of as adult person reflect what he has imbibed in childhood. Children bring the asset of nation should be grown up to become robust, physically fit, mentally alert and morally healthy citizen.

We should be aware that children are the future of the modern world. Children need a healthy, balanced diet which is rich in fruit, vegetables and starchy food. Food which is the basic necessity of life, plays a crucial role in children’s growth. If young children are not given proper care in giving proper

CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL SCIENCES, Vol. 24, Number 3 (July-September), 2015 * Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, N. A. S. (PG) College, Meerut, Uttar

balanced diet, they will suffer from malnutrition which intern effect their growth. Encourage children to choose a variety of foods to help ensure that they obtain the wide range of nutrients, if they need to stay healthy. Better quality and more nutritious food, less processed food should be encourage for growing children. Children physiology is an important aspect in their development. Surrounding environment plays a important role in the development of child. They learn from their adults, share a common value system and are motivated from their elders. Children live in their own dream land, develop various tyre of fantasies in their mind & try to fulfill them somehow. Children enjoy social interaction, have a breadth of interest and grasp of possibilities. They are very good at grasping things. They are highly interested and observant of how thing work and often. They often tale apart toys in an effort to observe and understand “what makes them thick.” Thy create their own fantasy world and live very much within the world they create.

Children are diligent and conscientious have a deep concern for other’s feeling and work at trying a please parents, teachers and other authority figures. They thrive in an environment which provides consistency and personal attention, rules and authority are important to them. Acceptance of others is also very important to then and they strive to please their parents and others. For them to do their best in the classroom a positive teacher student relationship in essential. It is vital for them to like the person who teachers them and disharmony. They are very skeptical and analytical and trust reason above all else. They connect unrelated thoughts and seek objective solutions to enigmatic problems. They regard their parents, teachers and other adults as their equal and feel free to challenge them when ever they perceive their thinking to be illogical.

Children abhor making mistaken and try to avoid letting other know when they do so. They very soon catch what they see in Television. Advertisement play a vital role in media field. T.V. advertisements specifically aimed at children companies related to food products are targeting our young generation for selling their product. They through the mean of advertisement exhibit their product in such a lovely manner that our tinytots soon get attracted & wants to try that particular product. Example:- Sunny Delight soft drink changed its name to “SUNNY D” in order to seem “cool” to the younger set. They began showing commercial advertisements that displayed children and young teens coming in the house with skateboards and raving over the fact Sunny D was in the refrigerator. Today food industry of India/all our the world in selling their worst

product in society by targeting our society/children which in unethical Corporation advertise or package or create their products in a manner that is enticing to children known as unethical food marketing. Breakfast cereal makers are another group that is highly guilty of ploys created to children to urge their parents to buy a certain brand. They put appealing cartoon characters as the boxes and put toys or games inside to entice kids. Example:- CRAX packet of Rs. 5 carry small games inside & kids enjoy playing it. Sometimes the children do not even want the cereal but are move attracted to the toy.

Brilliantly marketed highly salty foods are being deliberately targeted for our children’s lunch boxes. The use of marketing practices targeted at children to sell their product is unethical says Registered Nutritionist and chartered Marketer, Kathy Lewis of consensus Action on salt and Health.

India is world’s second largest grower of fruits and vegetables after Brazil and China. While the agriculture sector has witnessed several leaps of innovation and technological advancements, the processing sector is still in its infancy. Even with less than 4% processing of fruits and vegetables, the Food processing Industry sector in India is one of the largest in terms of production, consumption within India, export and growth prospects. The government has accorded it a high priority, with a number of fiscal reliefs and incentives, to encourage commercialization and value addition to agricultural produce; for minimizing per/post harvest wastage, generating employment and export growth. As a result of several policy initiatives undertaken since liberalization in early 90’s, the industry has witnessed fast growth in most of the segments. In the following few paragraphs, it can be noted that the processed food market for India is vast and the aount of scope that retail chains would be exposed to is phenomenal taking into consideration the demographics and raise in standards of living. Retailers could throng the market with all these processed and packaged foods with their private labels. With the emergence of the big private corporates, NGOs (Non-Government Organizations) and Government organizations into the food processing scene, India is making big inroads into the Food Processing Industry. These corporates and NGOs have reached out to the farmers and provided them with timely advice and help in the up gradation of farm practices with valuable inputs on various areas of farming from sowing to harvesting which includes quality seed procurement, manures, fertilizers and pesticides etc. Some of the successful models are that of ITC’s e-choupal a model that helps the soyabean farmers in contract producing for ITC for its commodity trading business. The

PEPSI experimenting with Punjab farmers in growing the right quality tomato for its tomato purees and pastes. Some of the leading food retail chains working with farmers for contract growing greens for supply to their retail outlets etc. These successful models are being replicated with required changes all over the country and the food industry is getting integrated more strongly.

India has also seen a flurry of food chain majors like McDonalds, Pizza Hut and kentucky fried Chicken finding their place among the Indian consumers. The trend still follows for food chains in India to spread to almost all cities and towns.

These advancements have revolutionized the integration of the Indian Food Industry and have played a vital role in solving, to a large extent, major supply chain issues that prevailed. The trend is that these successful institutional intervention models be replicated and supread in all segments of the food industry far and wide through the country that benefit all the incumbents of the chain evolve. This finally helps the retailer as his supply chain becomes much leaner and vertically integrated. He is in a position to offer a wide variety and highest degree of convenience to his customer. The media bombardment during the last 15 years has exposed the Indian consumer to the life styles of more affluent countries and raised their aspirations and expectations from the shopping experience. They want more choice, value, service, experience and convenience.

Ethical practices are aimed to ensure a sustained market. Although promotional techniques are used encourage usage by a particular target audience, they should not be used on those that are vulnerable and at such a crucial stage of health and development.

Food industry used a combination of marketing techniques including packaging, positioning promotion and price, to enhance sales. The worst cases surveyed, using upto a combination of 10 marketing techniques on one product, included ‘Attack-a-Snack,’ Walker’s crip’s (ig/packet). Each used a combination of marketing techniques specifically aimed at children and busy parents. These marketing techniques includes :

u Competition, such as win a year, pocket money. u In-pack promotion, including games and colouring in.

u Web-based promotions, such as design your own dairy-lea movie or as interactive web-enabled competition.

Advertising is a massive, mutli-million dollar project that “having an enormous impact on child development” Says Kanner, who is also an associate faculty member at a clinical psychology training program called the wright Institute. According to Kanner, the result is not only as epidemic of materialistic values among children but also something he calls “narcissistic wounding” of children. Children in share a common thing- a growing, even insatiable, desire for material goods.

Now days advertisers are making their pitchers to younger and younger audiences, many of them not yet out of drapers.

Marketing to children is a planned process which starts at early age and continue till he/she become loyal customer or drop the product as a result of his analytical ability to understand the message and content of product and advertising. Normally child get exposed to the advertising at early age, when the child starts recognizing shapes and images. Advertising gradually build the strong relationship between brand and the child.

For example, Adds of Horlicks, Bournvita, Maggi are presented in such a beautiful manner that a child starts demanding it. These demand create an environment of child parent conflict. Parents find themselves having to say no over and over again to children whose desire are piqued by effective advertising.

Representation of marketing process and development of child as consumer

Lifestyle trends in urban India [Crising incomes, longer working hours, more working mothers, time poor/cash-rich parents] tend to support a convenience time pass and food culture, which lead the child to watching television and the increased consumption of HFSS food [high in fat, salt and sugar]. In addition the advertising industry makes junk food seem irresistible,

Unethical Food Marketing to Children 29

Attractive Colours

Celebrity Endorsement

Entertainment Image

Building Consumption

Repeat Purchase

Brand Loyal

thus children become physically addicted to junk food. Children who don’t have the emotional or cognitive tools evaluate what’s being sold to them also demand for product of their choice (mostly advertised products). They want the advertised product which give pleasure because its glorified, fantasy and puffery appeal.

Food industries are more interested in making money rather than paying needs to the health problems that their products can cause. These people are criminals and they seen on harm in doing so. Tactics are used to make entire children, make them feel “less than cool” if they do not get a certain food product or even create products that coloured or shaped in certain ways that children would be fascinated by.

Unethical food marketing have adverse effect on child health. This includes :

u Physical health of child.

u Mental stress for not owing the product of his choice. u Diet habits.

u Family stress (a result of influence on family spending). u Consumption of alcoholic drink.

u Smoking.

Another source of animosity is the family budget advertising make kids want things, it creates desire which put a lot of pressure on parents. When a parent says, ‘No, I cannot by that, I don’t have enough money, there’s as underlying sense that the parent is not meeting the child’s need and is depriving the child of what he or she needs to be happy. At the same time, the youngster is learning how to get parents to respond to his or her wishes and want. This may take the form of a grunt, where scream, or gesture-indeed some tears may be necessary but eventually almost all children are able on a regular basis to persuade Mom of Dad to buy something for them. The Indian child is also becoming influencing consumer for today and powerful buyer for tomorrow.

Food industry currently faces angry resistance from health institutions against the growing increase in child obesity. Health industries and institutions seems to be fighting a losing battle in terms of appealing to children, in because they do not understand the art of marketing and communication. Where are the teletubby-branded apples? Obesity amongst children is just as much the result of

unethical marketing on the part of certain food/snack brands as it is of the lack of proper marketing on the part most health institutions and industries.

Marketing base to put the brand on the top of the mind, creating brand equity, maintaining the brand loyalty has extended its net to influence the children to a extent that it has lost its path and walking on the unethical grounds, leaving our children in a vulnerable condition. The media is filled with sensational child guardian us the marketer’ articles and in the process none of the parties realize that they can learn from one another to their mutual benefit. Marketers can learn how to be more ethical and socially responsible when it comes to children by understanding them as a developing human being and not just consumer. Health industries and institutions can utilize sound marketing principles to get their positive, educational messages across.

Marketing can be wonderful information resource to children. It can serve as an introduction to what it means to be a responsible consumer and help children to appreciate diversity of choices, teaching team to choose wisely. Parents are urged to teach their children financial discernment and in school children are taught how to use and interpret the media. We should educate our children on how to tame this ‘beast’? Today consumers have rights-the right to safety, choice, education, information and right to speak their mind. Consumers expect businesses to be pro-active and adopt a socially responsible approach to marketing which ensures that customers needs are met, but with their best interests at heart-especially comes to children.

Marketers need to go back to all of the four marketing P’s-product, price, place and promotion- using sound ethical and socially responsible values as the foundation for all. Businesses should be pro-active and shift their focus from “how can we implement marketing without doing harm” to “how can we implement marketing to the benefit and growth of our market”. It does not mean that fast-food industry should close its doors, television producers stop producing television, programs aimed at children. Not necessarily-the societal management philosophy in self brings new opportunities to many industries; the opportunity to expand food product portfolios by developing ‘healthy alternatives; the opportunity to develop marketing strategies which not only seal products, but also educate consumers on a healthy, balanced lifestyle; a boom in the sports equipment and toy industries and the opportunity to create healthy lifestyle television programs.

One thing is certain : The answer does not lie in banning marketing to children or labeling all marketing to children as “unethical”. Children should instead be educated in the science of marketing and businesses should learn to satisfy needs in a manner which protects and even nurtures children’s right and best interests.

References

Kumar Ashok, Developing Women & Children in India, New Delhi : Common Wealth Publisher, 2006, 52-60

.

Dabholker, P. A., Thorpe. D. A. and Punty, J. O, “A measure of service quality for retail stores”, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 24(1), 1996, 3-16.

Technopak Retail Outlook Quarterly Report, New Delhi : Technopak Advisors Pvt. Ltd., October 2007.

Deloitte Global Powers of Retailing Report, Deloitte Development LLC, 2008. K. K. Tripathy, “Processed Food Industry in India : Potentials and Constraints”,

Kurukshetra, Vol. 25, No. 6, April 2006, 12-16.

Lalita Khurana, “Consumer sovereigntay can be a Reality”, Kurukshetra, Vol. 25, No.

6, April 2006, 21-23. _ê

4

Extent of Problems faced by Female

Sewing Machine Workers

Neha Gahlot*, Manju Mehta**, Kiran Singh***

Sewing is a helping hand activity for the woman who is not very educated, but skilled and cannot go outside the house for earning. In matrix of home and workplace environment which is often overlapped, women have to suffer a lot of problems including physical and psychological as well. The study was undertaken in the Hisar city of Haryana state to find out the problems in sewing activity performed by the female sewing machine operators. The responses of the respondents were taken through well structured questionnaire cum interview schedule. The findings of the study revealed that injuries and minor accidents were frequently faced by the respondents while performing the sewing task. It was investigated that majority of respondents were suffering from swelling of fingers, followed by needle piercing, cuts , burning and electric shock during ironing. In response the respondents were not paying any attention and were not using any protective measure while performing the sewing task. Respondents also revealed that apart from the injuries they were facing customer related problems which exhaust them and causes occupational stress. The common customer related problems were bargaining (83.75%), urgency of demand, high expectation and low payment. These problems resulted in negative impact as stress (90%), anxiety, household problems and so on. The respondents were paid very low as compared to the boutique rates which results in the dissatisfaction regarding the work in decreased production and low motivation. The respondents were suggested suitable measures to cope up with injuries and to lowering the stress for maintaining their health and for utilizing their proper potential for the accurate prices.

[Keywords : Sewing task, Injuries, Protective measures, Customer related problems]

CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL SCIENCES, Vol. 24, Number 3 (July-September), 2015 * M. Sc. Student, Department of Family Resource Management, I. C. College of Home

Science, CCSHAU, Hisar, Haryana (India) E-mail: <nehagahlot25@gmail.com> ** Sr. Scientist, Department of Family Resource Management, I. C. College of Home

Science, CCSHAU, Hisar, Haryana (India) E-mail: <mm1964@rediffmail.com > *** Professor, Department of Family Resource Management, I. C. College of Home Science,

1.

Introduction

Women have always been the major contributor to the household economy. Today women are called upon to undertake the dual role of looking after the family and its need, and also earn for the families maintenance, by taking up either full or part time work for wages/salaries. In the process of economic development, women’s role has been a major component Rashmi (2005). Many women undertake sewing activity as an entrepreneur. A large number of workers employed in sewing activity are unorganized labour and specially women who stitch garments at their home. Women represent a significant majority of the home workers who cut and stitch garments together for the global apparel trade and all these activities they perform at their home environment. Apart from the home environment, the workplace is the setting where many people spend a large proportion of their time. The boundary between their home and workplace environments is blurred for the household sewing workers. In recent years, the contribution of poor environmental conditions at the workplace, poor perception of work conditions, and presence of adverse health conditions in workers has received much attention. The nature of workplaces varies and therefore the determinants of occupational injury and morbidity also varies; identification of the responsible factors in any specific work environment would help in clarifying the etiology and would also be useful for prevention and containment of occupation-related ill health. Along with that sewing activity performed at home is not considered as a professional work, in such this condition the chances of misbehave or unfair wages are very common which leads to stress and other problems and lower level of satisfaction of work done.

2.

Methodology

The study was conducted with an objective to find out the extent of problems faced by the female sewing machine operators. The present study was conducted on 80 female sewing machine operators who were engaged in sewing activity from last 4 years for their financial welfare in the Hisar city of Haryana state. The study involved the collection of information regarding the injuries and accidents faced along with the problems faced the respondents related to the customers and the impact of the problems as well. It also included the customer satisfaction level regarding the payment of the work done. The information of the respondents was explored through the questionnaire cum interview schedule.

Nation reporter, “Some cash transfer firms may be genuine, state told”, Daily Nation, April 10, 2015, p. 6.

Nation reporter, “68 bodies still at mortuary”, Daily Nation, April 13, 2015, p. 5. Nation reporter, “County to hold mass for dead students”, Daily Nation, April 13,

2015, p. 6.

Nation reporter, “Muslims told to help fight terrorism”, Daily Nation, April 13, 2015, p. 8.

Nation reporter, “Ruto assures Kenyans of their security”, Daily Nation, April 13, 2015, p. 6.

Nation reporter, “Teacher quits job to join recruits camp”, Daily Nation, April 13, 2015, p. 6.

Nation reporter, “We’ll defeat terrorists, says Uhuru”, Daily Nation, April 15, 2015, p. 3.

Nation reporter, “House asked to sack spy chiefs”, Daily Nation,April 16, 2015, p. 5. Nation reporter, “Rights team calls for new approach in war on terror”, Daily Nation,

April 16, 2015, p. 5.

Nation reporter, “Students may get military training”, Daily Nation, April 16, 2015, p. 6.

Nation reporter, “Airwing chiefs grilled over corruption claims”, Daily Nation, April 17, 2015, p. 3.

Nation reporter, “Church leaders scared of radical youth”, Daily Nation, April 17, 2015, p. 3.

Nation team, “Christians defy fear, throng churches for Easter service amid tight security”, Daily Nation, April 6, 2015, p. 2.

Nation team, “Dismantle Daadab camp, says Mudavadi”, Daily Nation, April 6, 2015, p. 6.

Nation team, “Hunt on for terror message’s author”, Daily Nation, April 6, 2015, p. 6. Nation team, “Monster who led Shabaab mass killers is unmasked”, Daily Nation,

April 6, 2015, p. 4.

Nation team, “Students want police posts in campuses”, Daily Nation, April 6, 2015, p. 6.

Nation team, “UASU: Move lecturers, support staff too”, Daily Nation, April 6, 2015, p. 6.

Nation team, “Tears of joy, prayers of thanksgiving as survivors arrive home, recount ordeal”, Daily Nation, April 7, 2015, p. 2.

Nation team, “Confusion over number of missing varsity students”, Daily Nation, April 9, 2015, p. 4.

Nation team, “NGOs protest as accounts frozen”, Daily Nation, April 9, 2015, p. 4.

Nation team, “Four undergo surgery at KNH, 113 treated”, Daily Nation, April 13, 2015, p. 2.

Nation team, “One dead, 141 hurt in varsity terrorist scare”, Daily Nation, April 13, 2015, p. 1.

Nation team, “Police plane in Mombasa on day of Garissa raid”,Daily Nation, April 13, 2015, p. 1.

Nation team, “Student dies, 141 injured in stampede after explosions rock UON”, Daily Nation, April 13, 2015, p. 2.

Nation team, “More Garissa students buried”, Daily Nation, April 15, 2015, p. 3. Nation team, “Clerics, leaders give conditions on amnesty order”, Daily Nation, April

16, 2015, p. 4.

Nation team, “Kingi tells state to review refugee treaty”, Daily Nation, April, 20, 2015, p. 9.

Nation team, “Officials criticized for slow Garissa response”, Daily Nation, April 20, 2015, p. 9.

Nation team. (). “Garissa attack victims appeal for counseling”, Daily Nation, April 22, 2015, p. 10.

Nation team, “Leaders back building of Kenya-Somali wall”, Daily Nation, April 22, 2015, p. 10.

Ndurya, M., “Big-hearted citizens, who counseled, fed relatives”, Daily Nation, April 7, 2015, p. 6.

Ndurya, M. and Wachira, M. , “Parents’ pain and horror at city mortuary”, Daily Nation, April 7, 2015, p. 4.

Ngunjiri, J., “Dashed hopes as Kiganjo turns away youth”, Daily Nation, April 13, 2015, p. 6.

Njagi, J., “Duale under pressure to quit over terror list”, Daily Nation, April 17, 2015, p. 9.

Nyassy, D., “Religious Leaders urge State to stem local terrorism”, Sunday Nation, April 12, 2015, p. 18.

Nyassy, D. and Amadala, B., “MPs fault Ruto on plan to shut Dadaab camp”, Daily Nation, April 13, 2015, p. 8.

Ochieng, L., “Relatives hang on hope as they wait for news”, Daily Nation, April 4, 2015, p. 3.

Odhiambo, N., “Siaya reps say no to Uhuru condolences”, Sunday Nation, April 12, 2015, p. 6.

Okewo, E. and Wafula, L., “Father heard his daughter being shot by terrorists”, Daily Nation, April 10, 2015, p. 4.

Okewo, E. & Shilitsa, J., “Relatives recount last moments with loved ones as Muslims condemn attack”, Sunday Nation, April 5, 2015, p. 4.

Okewo, E., “VCs say varsity should not be shut down”, Sunday Nation, April 5, 2015, p. 6.

Robert, S., “Police trying to figure out why ‘rich kids’ join Shabaab”, Sunday Nation, April 12, 2015, p. 18.

Rono, G., “Kenya safe to visit, says US senator”, Daily Nation, April 15, 2015, p. 16. Scanlan, C. (2014). Writing from the top down: pros and cons of the inverted pyramid.

Retrieved from: http://www.poynter.org/news/media-innovation/12754/ writing-from-the-top-down--pros-and-cons-of-the-inverted-pyramid/Date retrieved: 15/07/2015.

Severin, T. W. and Tankard, J. W, Jr., Communication Theories : Origins, Methods and Uses in the Mass Media, 5th _{edition, USA : Pearson Custom Publishing, 2001.} Singh, J. K., Media & Journalism, New Delhi : A. P. H. Publishing Cooperation, 2001. Singh, J. K.,Textbook of Mass Communication, New Delhi : A.P.H. Corporation, 2009. Sunday Nation team, “Police boss Kaindi might pay for slow Garissa response”,

Sunday Nation, April 19, 2015, p. 6.

Wanzala, O., “36 Garissa victims yet to be identified”, Daily Nation, April 8, 2015,p. 8. Wanzala, O., “State House admits flaws in response”, Daily Nation, April 10, 2015,

p. 5.

Wanzala,O., “Omamo: 128 bodies identified”, Daily Nation, April 9, 2015, p. 6. Wilbur, R. and Miller, R., Modern Media Writing, USA : Wadsworth Cengage

Learning, 2003.

Zomick, B., (2013). Everything you need to know about the inverted pyramid style. Retrieved from: phttp://www.skilledup.com/articles/about-the-inverted-pyramid-writing-stylearagraph. Date retrieved: 10/08/15. _ê

162 Anne Eboi

Guidelines for Contributors

Manuscripts for publication (papers, notes, book reviews etc.) in the Contemporary Social Sciences (CSS) and Journal of National Development (JND) must be in English (in Hindi only for ‘Special Issue of JND in Hindi’). One hard copy of the typewritten manuscript, in double spacing with a side margin, should be sent for publication to The Managing Editor, JND/CSS, D-59, Shastri Nagar, Meerut-250 004 (India) and a soft copy should be sent through e-mail at <papersubmission@jndmeerut.org>. The text of the paper (not exceeding 15 pages in all) should be accompanied by a list of footnotes and references, tables and figures, if any, separately. Footnotes should be kept to a minimum, each not exceeding 4 typed lines, References should contain the name(s) of author(s), complete title of the book (italics), place of publication, publisher, year of publication and page number(s) of the citations. For example, Dharam Vir,

Education and Polity in Nepal : An Asian Experiment, New Delhi : Northern Book Centre, 1988, p. 158. For articles published in journals, it should contain full name(s) of the author(s), the title of the article in double quotes followed by a comma, the name of the journal (italics), volume, number, year of publication and page number(s). For example, Kamlesh Mahajan, “Mass Media and Women’s Development : The Case of Television in India”, Journal of National Development, Vol. II, No. 2 (Winter), 1989, 182-197 or for an article in the book like Kamlesh Mahajan, “Portrayal of Women on Television in India’’, David Sciulli (ed.), Comparative Social Research, Greenwich, Connecticut, U. S. A. : Jai Press Inc., 1996, 53-67. Book reviews should not contain footnotes. Reference to other works, if any, should be incorporated in the text itself.

Submission of a paper will be held to imply that it contains original unpublished work and is not being submitted for publication elsewhere. Authors are solely responsible for obtaining permission from the owners of the copyright while reproducing any material which has already been published elsewhere. The Editors don’t accept any responsibility for damage or loss of papers submitted. Editors reserve the right to publish the articles accepted for publication in the JND/CSS, in a separate edited book simultaneously or later on.

World Copyrights of articles published in CSS are controlled by Contemporary Social Sciences, 1972 and in JND by Journal of National Development, 1988. No part of the publications may be reproduced in any form without written permission of the Editor.

Processing Fee

Contributors from foreign countries are entitled to receive a soft copy of the issue free of cost. However, a nominal processing fee of ` _{2000 is charged from Indian contributors and US $ 35}

from foreign contributors which entitles them to receive a hard copy. This processing fee includes postage charges, i.e. SPEED POST for Indians and SPEED POST VIA AIR MAIL for foreigners.

For any help, please contact : e-mail: <helpdesk@jndmeerut.org>

Place of Publication

_:

_{Delhi, India}

Periodicity

:

Quarterly (English)

Printer’s Name

:

Priyanka Mahajan

Saksham Computers

Nationality

:

Indian

Address

:

D-59, Shastri Nagar

Meerut-250 004 (INDIA)

Editor’s Name

:

Dr. Dharam Vir

Nationality

:

Indian

Address

:

D-59, Shastri Nagar

Meerut-250 004 (INDIA)

:

Dr. S. S. Shashi

B-4/245, Safdarjung Enclave

New Delhi-110 029

:

Dr. Dharam Vir

D-59, Shastri Nagar

Meerut-250 004 (INDIA)

I, Dr. Dharam Vir, hereby declare that the particulars given above are true to the best of my knowledge and belief.

Dharam Vir

Form 4 (See Rule 8)

Names and addresses of the individuals who own the journal and of the partners or share-holders holdings more than one per cent of the total capital