The use of scaffolding teaching technique to teach second grade students of SMAN 1 Kalasan in English conversation class.

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w ered from interviews ,observaiton checkilst , ifeld notes and video recording . e s u o t y r o e h t t s ri f e h T . s e ir o e h t g n it r o p p u s e h t n o d e s a b d e z y l a n a e r e w d e n i a t b o a t a d e h T if it n e d i y d u t s s i h T . ) 9 9 1 p , 6 0 0 2 ( r e n u r B y b d e c u d o rt n i t s ri f t a h t y r o e h t g n i d l o f f a c s s

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m leh karena tiu ,sangaltah penitng untuk menerapkan . a w s i s h u r u l e s n a h u t u b e k n a g n e d i a u s e s g n a y t a p e t g n a y n a r a j a g n e p i g e tr a t s s n a p a r e n e p i s a k if it n e d i g n e m k u t n u n a u j u tr e b i n i i d u t

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p siswadiharapkandapatt erdorongdan n a d u j a m t a p a d a k e r e m a n a m i d n a r a j a l e b m e p s e s o r p n a k a n a s k a l e m k u t n u i s a v it o m r e t . s ir g g n I a s a h a b r e b n a u p m a m e k a m a t u r e t , a k e r e m n a u p m a m e k n a k g n a b m e g n e m l a d i d n a k s u m u ri d g n a y h a l a s a m a g it a d a , t u b e s r e t n a u j u t n a k r a s a d r e

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b sungd idalamkela syangt erdri idar iduapuluht ujuh n a t a t a c , i s a v r e s b o r a tf a d , a r a c n a w a w i r a d t a p a d i d i n i n a it il e n e p m a l a d a t a D . a w s i s ir o e t n a k r a s a d r e b s i s il a n a i d n a i d u m e k t a p a d i d g n a y a t a D . o e d i v n a m a k e r n a d , n a g n a p a l -n a y a m a tr e p i r o e T . g n u k u d n e p i r o e

t g digunakan adalah teor iscaffolding yang petrama a y n i d a jr e t i s a k if it n e d i g n e m i n i i d u t S . ) 9 9 1 . l a h , 6 0 0 2 ( r e n u r B h e l o n a k l a n e k r e p i d i l a k e p

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xiii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE _{... i}

APPROVAL PAGES _{... ii}

DEDICATION PAGE _{... iv}

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY _{... v}

PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI_{... vi}

ABSTRACT _{... vii}

ABSTRAK_{... ix}

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS _{... xi}

TABLE OF CONTENTS _{... xiii}

LIST OF TABLES _{... xvii}

LIST OF APPENDICES _{... xviii}

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION _{... 1}

A. Research Background ... 1

B. Research Problem ... 5

C. Problem Limitation ... 6

D. Research Objectives ... 6

E. Research Benefits ... 7

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xiv

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE _{... 10}

A. Theoretical Description ... 10

1. Scaffolding ... 10

a. Scaffolding as Metaphor ... 10

b. Scaffolding Defined ... 12

c. Scaffolding as a Teaching Technique ... 15

2. English Conversation Class ... 24

a. The Nature of Conversation ... 24

b. English Conversation Class in SMAN 1 Kalasan_{... 25}

3. The Second Grade Students of High School ... 27

B. Theoretical Framework ... 31

CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY _{... 33}

A. Research Method ... 33

B. Research Setting ... 34

C. Research Participants ... 34

D. Research Instruments and Data Gathering Technique ... 36

1. Interview ... 36

2. Observation Checklist ... 37

3. Field Notes ... 39

4. Video Recording ... 40

E. Data Analysis Technique ... 42

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2. Triangulation ... 43

F. Research Procedure ... 45

CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH FINDINGS _{... 48}

A. The Use of Scaffolding and Its Types in English Conversation Class 48 1. The Elements of the Activities ... 48

a. Opening ... 49

b. Getting Ready ... 49

1) Non-Verbal Warming Up Activity: Mirror Hands ... 49

2) Non-Verbal Cooling Down Activity: Breathing ... 50

3) Group Formation Activity: Mix and Mingle ... 51

c. Working from/into Scenarios and Scripts ... 52

1) One-Word Dialogues ... 52

2) Dialogue Interpretation ... 53

3) Role-Play ... 56

2. The Occurrence of Scaffolding and Its Types during the English Conversation Class ... 57

a. Offering Explanation ... 59

b. Inviting Students’ Participation ... 63

c. Verifying and Clarifying Students Understandings .... 68

d. Modeling of Desired Behaviors ... 71

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B. The Advantages of Scaffolding as a Teaching Technique ... 76

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS _{... 79}

A. Conclusions ... 79

B. Recommendations ... 82

1. For Other Teachers ... 82

2. For Other Researchers ... 84

REFERENCES _{... 85}

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xvii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

3.1 Question for Interview ... 37

3.2 Data Gathering Techniques ... 41

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xviii

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX A Statement from SMAN 1 Kalasan ... 88

APPENDIX B The Result of the Observation Checklist ... 89

APPENDIX C The Result of the Field Notes ... 91

APPENDIX D The List of Interview Questions ... 95

APPENDIX E The Result of the Interview ... 96

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1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This first chapter consists of six parts. They are the research background, research problem, problem limitation, research objectives, research benefits, and definition of terms.

A. Research Background

Recently, active English spoken mastery is an essential requirement demanded for many purposes. Speaking English is one aspect to support best communication as well as for absorbing and developing science, technology, culture, arts and other aspects of life. Being concerned that speaking English is important for students’ future, some schools consider that English is not only taught as a main subject applied by the government, but also supported by designing an English program to endorse the English subject.

SMAN 1 Kalasan_{designs an English program in addition to formal}

curricular English, namely English conversation class. English conversation is a special program or extracurricular that aims at improving students’ spoken English in conversation. This program has been running for three years. The writer had taught the second grade students for English conversation class for three semesters. During the teaching, the writer observed that the English conversation class teachers implemented scaffolding as a teaching technique even though they had not known the term of scaffolding used as a teaching technique

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yet. Since the use of scaffolding as a teaching technique was observed to bring benefits to students’ learning process, the writer considered to conduct this study.

However, recently English teachers are challenged to deal with the fact that the world of teaching is revolutionizing. The prior concept in teaching students was transferring knowledge in one way of communication which mostly happened along the process. Teachers gave the comprehended knowledge to the students. Students’ objective was to decode the knowledge. Teachers provided them with rules and skills in order to achieve the objective. In the end of the teaching process, students had to acquire the knowledge. Yet, it was led to proficiency. However, the main idea of teaching and learning today has changed to a concept that builds students to be the primary subject of the teaching and learning process. Students are demanded to be able to actively construct their knowledge and understanding.

Nevertheless, the role of teacher is still very important in students’ learning process. Teachers are to create learning opportunities to students during the activities in classroom. Students are given the opportunity to understand how and why they learn and to connect the new given knowledge with the previous knowledge they possess. Learning occurs when students are in the process of constructing and reconstructing their understanding. Here, teachers must consider that each student is at the varying degree of understanding, capacities, and motivation. Teachers’ assistance is very essential to cover this situation. Teachers also need to create a situation where a good interaction between them and students happens in the class. Two ways of communication indicate that students take part

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in the teaching-learning process. Teachers’ task is to ensure that students actively join the process while providing assistance until the students are able to perform the given tasks independently.

Since the role of teachers is still essential, teacher’s assistance during the learning process is necessary. According to Bruner, teacher’s assistance is the major component of teaching activity (as cited in Roehler and Cantlon, 1997, p. 9). The assistance that exists during students’ learning process is called scaffolding. Scaffolding as a teaching technique gives the solution for such case that challenges English conversation teachers in SMAN 1 Kalasan_.

The term scaffolding is relatively new for educators, even though the notion has been applied for a long time under the other names. When people hear the word scaffolding, they directly relate it with the new buildings construction, or skyscrapers that need renovation. Therefore, the concept of scaffolding as a teaching technique is adopted from the concept of scaffolding used on construction site, which acts momentary to support a job based on the needs, and will be removed when it is no longer required.

Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976) first introduced the term of scaffolding in educational field in their journal entitled “The Role of Tutoring in Problem Solving”. According to them, scaffolding “consists essentially of the adult ‘controlling’ those elements of the task that are initially beyond the learner’s capacity, thus permitting him to concentrate upon and complete only those elements that are within his range of competence” (p. 199). Based on Graves and Braaten (1996), scaffolding in educational conceptual is described as the

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temporary supporting process which is presented by an expert to assist learners to connect the existence space between the area that they have known and can do and the area they must achieve and accomplish so they can be successful in the learning process (p. 169).

Numerous research about scaffolding shows that scaffolding is an important tool in language teaching. In the result of their research, Roehler and Cantlon (1997) emphasize that “scaffolding is an important instructional tool because it supports students’ learning (p. 39).” Moreover, Gaskins et al. (1997) state that scaffolding assistance constructs students to internalize knowledge of content, strategies, and thinking disposition, and how to use them productively (p. 71). As a teaching technique, the writer believes that scaffolding can be implemented in teaching English conversation effectively as the technique has been implemented in the English conversation class.

According to Hartman, the ultimate goal of the educator when using scaffolding is “for the student to become an independent and self-regulating learner and problem solver” (as cited in Van Der Stuyf, 2002). Roehler and Cantlon (1997) mention that there are five types of scaffolding, namely; offering explanations, inviting students participation, verifying and clarifying student understandings, modeling of desired behaviors, and inviting students to contribute clues (pp. 16- 30).

Scaffolding is considered to be the appropriate technique in teaching English conversation class as it can be implemented in the circumstances where different level of understanding and motivation exist among students. One of the

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advantages of scaffolding is that it can be applied for individual as well as for group of learning. It also can be used in the area where the range of understanding and the level of intelligences or capacities of the students exist.

Recognizing the facts, this study aims to the use of scaffolding to teach the second grade students of SMAN 1 Kalasan_{in English conversation class. In}

conducting the study, the writer uses a set of material developed by Maley and Duff (2005) to provide suitable teaching and learning materials and activities related to the study. English conversation class is chosen to conduct this study since it is a quite new program that still needs development in the teaching learning process and since the observation had been conducted for three semesters in this class. The second grade high school students are selected because they experience the second year of learning English conversation in which they were not in the time of adapting or preparing final examination like what the first grade and the third grade students experienced. Thus, this study is undertaken in order to identify the occurrence of the five types of scaffolding proposed by Roehler and Cantlon (1997), and to investigate their functions to teach second grade students of SMAN 1 Kalasan _{during English conversation class.}

B. Research Problem

By considering the research background above, there are three problems to be formulated:

1. What are the types of scaffolding implemented in the English conversation class?

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2. When do they occur during English conversation class?

3. What are the advantages of implementing scaffolding and its types in English conversation class?

C. Problem Limitation

Referring to the problems formulated above, this study makes some limitations. This study focuses on the use of the five types of scaffolding as a teaching technique proposed by Roehler and Cantlon to teach second grade students of SMAN 1 Kalasan during English conversation class.

CLT (Communicative Language Teaching) is one method that mostly used in teaching speaking. The goal of CLT is to enable students to communicate in the target language, which shares the similarity with the goal of English conversation class. It means that the principles of CLT as a teaching method might be used during the teaching learning process. However, this study limits the discussion on the investigation of scaffolding as a teaching technique implemented in English conversation class since scaffolding teaching technique is adjustable to teach many kinds of aspects especially in language teaching, not on the method used in the teaching learning process. In this study, there will not be further discussion on the CLT in English conversation class.

D. Research Objectives

The objectives of this study have been determined based on the three research problems formulated. The objectives of this study are to address the types

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of scaffolding, to identify their occurrence during the English conversation class, and to investigate their advantages to teach second grade students of SMAN 1 Kalasan_.

E. Research Benefits

By conducting this research, the writer hopes that this study brings benefits for the better development of English teaching. For being more specific, this research is aimed to yield benefits for:

1. English Teachers

The study is conducted to introduce scaffolding to teachers, especially English teachers who are willing to discover other techniques, which are fresher and more innovative. It is addressed particularly to deal with the situation and the condition of the education today which put students as primary subject in teaching learning process, instead of having the teachers as the center of the learning. This study is expected to help English teachers to understand more about scaffolding. The writer recommends scaffolding to be implemented as alternative technique in language teaching, especially English.

2. Other researchers

Since the use of scaffolding has been practiced for long time, but the term has not been popular yet, the writer hopes that by doing the study about it, the writer can propose the next researchers to continue this study further so that many educators can learn from this study. It is also expected that this study will provide meaningful information for other researchers. Moreover, this study can be used as

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a guidance to conduct an in-depth study in the future and even result a better performance.

F. Definition of Terms

This study concerns with some variables. Hence, it is important to define some variables clearer in order to avoid and to prevent misunderstanding. The terms to be defined in this thesis are as follows:

1. Scaffolding

Scaffolding is a teaching technique that first proposed by Bruner. According to Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976), scaffolding is a form of assistance offered by the adults that essentially occur during a learners’ learning process (p. 199). The concept of scaffolding as teaching technique is teachers’ or adults’ assistance in teaching learning process.

In this study, the writer investigates some types of scaffolding, which are elaborated by Roehler and Cantlon (1997), and their advantages during English conversation class. According to them, there are five types of scaffolding that can be provided in the class, namely, offering explanations, inviting students participation, verifying and clarifying student understandings, modeling of desired behaviors, and inviting students to contribute clues (p. 16). The types of scaffolding will be identified during the activities occur in English conversation class.

These five types of scaffolding are considered as teaching techniques because they are implemented as the ways to assist students’ language learning in

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order to carry out particular tasks. The scaffolding teaching technique can be used when another technique are being implemented. In this study, for instance, scaffolding occurs in the middle of discussion and role play. Scaffolding and its types can be distinguished from principles, as they are not only rules, but ways of assisting students’ learning. The underlying concept of scaffolding teaching technique is adults’ or teachers’ assistance.

2. English Conversation Class

English conversation class is a special program or extracurricular designed by the school board of SMAN 1 Kalasan_{to support English curriculum that has}

been established nationally. This program aims at improving students’ spoken English in English conversation. It focuses on the practice of conversation as a part of speaking skill, instead of learning only the theory of English. Even though it is an extracurricular, every student has to attend the class since it is put inside the regular schedule along with other main subjects.

3. Second Grade of SMAN 1 Kalasan

Second grade students are the students around 16-17 years old who are in the second year of high school. According to the latest curriculum, the second grade students have taken their certain majors determined by the school, namely, science and social major. In this study, the writer selects the students of XI IPS 2 of SMAN 1Kalasan_{in the first semester during 2011/2012 academic year.}

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10 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter has two major parts to discuss, namely theoretical description and theoretical framework. The theoretical description presents few theories related to the study, while the theoretical framework discusses about the guidelines that is used in conducting the study.

A. Theoretical Description

In this section, there are three main topics to discuss, namely Scaffolding, English Conversation Class, Second Grade Students of High School. On the discussion of scaffolding, there are three subtopics addressed. Namely, scaffolding as metaphor, scaffolding defined, and scaffolding as a teaching technique.

1. Scaffolding

a. Scaffolding as Metaphor

The writer is motivated to conduct this study since scaffolding as teaching technique has not been well known among the educators. Therefore, it is necessary to know the adoption of term scaffolding in educational field, especially for the educators who are going to learn and apply scaffolding as a teaching technique.

Scaffolding is not a new word for many people. They know scaffolding as a tool to help people’s work when constructing a building. Because of the

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principle, the word of scaffolding is used in educational field by borrowing its nature. The Oxford American Dictionary and Thesaurus defines scaffolding, used on construction sites, as “a temporary structure formed of poles, planks, etc., erected by workers and used by them while building or repairing a house, etc.” Scaffolding physically supports workers and it also facilitates them to move up and down, here and there, and anywhere around the site in order to complete their job. According to Herber and Herber (1993), scaffolding provides workers with both a place to work and the means to reach work areas that they could not access on their own (p. 138). Here, the principle of scaffolding that is used as a teaching technique is the principle of assisting and supporting. Scaffolding as teaching technique provides educators’ or adults’ assistance and support to learners in the area that they cannot reach by themselves when they are completing the given tasks.

When it is seen from the outside of the building, scaffolding looks like an external skeleton erected surrounds the building, even though it has nothing to do with supporting its weight. The nature of scaffolding is temporary, which is designed to disassemble quickly according to the needs. It can be stretched higher or dropped lower, spread north or retreated west. When the job has done and it is no longer required, scaffolding is taken apart and removed, as its nature is physically momentary. Although a temporary structure, it can be used again on the next job. Significantly, scaffolding is attached to the building, not the workers (Axford, 2009). In teaching and learning process, scaffolding also shares the similar concept. The principle of momentary supporting is used in teaching

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learning process. Similar with the use in construction site, scaffolding will be reduced gradually or removed when the learners no longer need the assistance because they can do the task independently.

McKenzie gives another example of scaffolding as a physic structure in a deep metaphor, “the workers cleaning the face of the Washington Monument do not confuse the scaffolding with the monument itself. The scaffolding is secondary. The building is primary.” The concept of scaffolding is adopted as a metaphor. It has meaning that scaffolding is addressed secondary, while the learners are the primary in the teaching learning process.

b. Scaffolding Defined

After knowing scaffolding as a metaphor, it is important to know the definition of scaffolding as a teaching technique since scaffolding is the main topic to discuss in this study. According to Bruner (2006), the nature of tutorial process is “the means whereby an adult or ‘expert’ helps somebody who is less adult or less expert” (p. 198). The statement explains that teaching learning process happens when someone or adult who is more knowledgeable and skillful is present to assist somebody who is less knowledgeable and less skillful. It can happen anywhere and anytime where there is a process of teaching and learning happens, both formal and informal. What comes to teaching and learning process is a problem to be solved. The function of tutoring itself then directs to an effort of problem solving. The issue of problem solving in achieving skill acquisition is preconditioned by an assumption that a learner is unassisted. In this condition, the role of teacher is crucial. The teacher treats more than just an occurrence of

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modeling or imitation. Wood, Bruner, and Ross emphasize the statement that is stated:

“Discussion of problem solving or skill acquisition are usually premised on the assumption that the learner is alone and unassisted. If the social context is taken into account, it is usually treated as an instance of modeling and imitation. But the intervention of a tutor may involve much more than this” (199).

According to them, in learning situation, more often than not, it involves a kind of scaffolding process that support a learner to solve a problem, carry out a task or achieve a goal which would be more effective than his unassisted efforts. The concept of the study is brought into the use of the term of scaffolding in educational field that was introduced for the first time. The scaffolding “consists essentially of the adult ‘controlling’ those elements of the task that are initially beyond the learner’s capacity, thus permitting him to concentrate upon and complete only those elements that are within his range of competence” (p. 199). By using scaffolding in the process, they believe that it can bring much more benefit for the learners than undertaking a complete assistance of the task. Thus, the goal is to be successful. “The task thus proceeds to a successful conclusion. We assume, however, that the process can potentially achieve much more eventually, in development of task competence by the learner at a pace that would far outstrip his unassisted efforts” (p. 199).

The term of scaffolding as a technique in educational field has not been popular enough in the group of teachers, but some academic researchers have studied it for years, including Graves and Braaten. They define scaffolding as the temporary supporting process that is presented by an expert to assist learners to

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associate the existence space between the area that they have known and can do and the area they must achieve and accomplish so that they can be successful in the learning process. It means to relate the previous learning with the new information that the learners get during the learning process, to bring them to succeed in obtaining the goal of the learning process.

Gaskins, et al. also support the idea of scaffolding for education field. According to Rogoff, in relation with the intelligent behavior, scaffolding refers to supportive situations where adults help children or learners extending their current skills and knowledge to a higher level of competence (as cited in Gaskins, et al., 1997, 45). Gaskins, et al. (1997) quoted the significance of scaffolding by Pearson and Fielding that, in school setting, scaffolding is whatever teachers say or do to enable children to complete the tasks they could not complete without assistance (p. 45). Scaffolding is employed not only to encourage the development of contents and strategies, but also to help students modify aspects of their personal style that interfere within the learning (p. 63). Ideally, scaffolding should take place in a friendly, lively, and enjoyable atmosphere and also collaborative environment where children feel free and motivated to contribute ideas. It is because they are accepted as worthy consideration and their understandings are frequently assessed. The situation, where there is an adult assistance, gives an opportunity for children to internalize knowledge of content, strategies, and dispositions. It is expected that in the future, they will use this knowledge to guide their intelligent behavior to do similar tasks. While their competences grow, the

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support must be gradually shifted and the learner should take on more responsibility for completing the task (p. 45-6). Gaskins, et al. conclude that:

scaffolding means explaining, demonstrating, and jointly constructing an idealized version of a performance. Scaffolding includes recruiting the student’s interest, reducing the number of steps so the task is manageable, maintaining students’ persistence toward the goal, making critical features evident, and controlling frustration and risk (p. 47).

Above all, Riley (2011) states in his book that, “the scaffold is the potentiality of each individual to act and react” to a guidance, guided by “those who have been entrusted with their care, because they cannot do it on their own.” Scaffolding is provided assistance in order to bring out learners’ potentiality to respond to it because they cannot complete the task by their own. He also supports that the term of scaffolding in an educational field is a useful and appropriate term since “it is a solid and yet transitory structure, semi permanent, rather than fixed, changeable with will be unlike a foundation, able to be modified without destroying the structure itself” (p. 21). He gives an understanding that scaffolding is not the same with building a foundation on students since a foundation is a permanent structure that becomes a base before going further to the next process of learning. Scaffolding can be modified, based on the condition and the situation happen around the students and along the process of learning. Scaffolding is flexible by following the happening moment and it will not destroy the structure. On the other hand, scaffolding will develop the base.

c. Scaffolding as a Teaching Technique

Sometimes students find difficulties in completing their tasks by their own. In that case, students need someone who is qualified enough to assist them

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mastering some skills in a collaboratively way. This idea becomes the strategy of scaffolding. According to Herber and Herber, as quoted by Lange (1993), there are processes to be applied in the use of scaffolding. The instructor (to call someone who assists a student or students in their learning) initially comes with extensive instructional support. The instructor then continues with some assistance in building students’ understanding of new content and process. When these processes have been done, the instructor is no longer assisting the students since they internalize the content and the process and later they are assumed to have full responsibility for controlling the progress of a given task. It means that the instructor has removed the temporary scaffolding and shifts to build the permanent structure of students understanding (pp. 138-9).

Turnbull et al. shares the similar idea with Herber and Herber in relation to scaffolding processes. According to Turnbull et al., scaffolding involves two major steps. The first step is the instructional plans to lead the students to associate the knowledge they have already known and possessed with the new material in order to acquire deeper understanding. Thus, they can perform the progress of the learning process in the future. The second step is the fulfillment of instructor presenting support for the students while completing every step to be taken in the learning process (as cited in Lange, 1999).

The significance of scaffolding is the adult’s direct contribution in assisting and monitoring students learning process. Teachers or instructors must provide all information that students need to complete given tasks in order to achieve the learning objectives. Teachers provide detailed advice, manage

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direction of the students’ attention, and watch the sequence of students’ activities. These are necessary in order to perform students’ ability within the scaffolded teaching environment. Jones states that “gradually, with scaffolding, children are able to direct their own attention, plan, and control their activities” (as cited in Henry).

According to Roehler and Cantlon (1997), there are five different types of scaffolding, yielded from the research they had established. They are (pp. 16-7):

1) Offering explanations

The first type of scaffolding consists of explanations. To contribute the scaffolding in teaching learning process, the teacher provides detail and explicit explanations to the students about the knowledge they are learning, the purpose of the learning, when they can apply the knowledge, and also the application of the knowledge. It is to prepare the students to go further and deeper to the material they will learn.

Explanations are explicit statements adjusted to fit the learners’ emerging scaffoldings about what is being learned (declarative or prepositional knowledge), why and when it is used (conditional or situational knowledge), and how it is used (procedural knowledge) (p. 17).

2) Inviting students participation

The second element of scaffolding that teacher can use in the classroom is inviting students participation. Through this type of scaffolding, teacher can explicitly or implicitly allow the students to be involved in the process of learning. To accommodate the students to feel invited, teacher firstly gives them the example of thinking, feelings, or actions that will be needed to complete the

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task. Being given the activity, students are provided a time to comprehend the knowledge.

In this type of scaffolding, learners were given opportunities to join in the process that was occurring. After the teacher provided illustrations of some of the thinking, feelings, or actions that were needed to complete the task, the learners had opportunities to fill the pieces they knew and understood. 3) Verifying and clarifying student understandings

This type of scaffolding is also the important element to apply. Teacher has to check the students’ understanding that appears when the learning process is in progress. There is a condition when students present their understandings and it seems to be reasonable. Teacher’s duty is to confirm that their thoughts are acceptable. If students say their understanding but it seems unreasonable, the teacher can clarify their responses.

Teachers checked the students’ emerging understandings. If the emerging understandings were reasonable, the teacher verified the students’ responses. If the emerging understandings were not reasonable, the teacher offered clarification.

4) Modeling of desired behaviors

Duffy, Roehler, and Hartman state that “modeling was defined as a teaching behavior that showed how one should feel, think, or act within a given situation” (as cited in Roehler and Cantlon, 1997, p. 20). A teacher is the role model that teaches the students such required behavior. Later on, students are expected to follow, imitate, and process the feeling, thought, and action like what they are modeled. The teacher demonstrates how to make a process of thinking aloud in order to accomplish the task. Hereby, the students are given such model on how to complete a task without thinking aloud or with talking aloud.

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The modeling, based on Roehler and Cantlon analysis, are broken down into two main functions. The first function is called making thinking visible, including thinking aloud. It occurs when the teacher models how to think sequentially to construct own understanding. The students follow the same way in order to attempt to solve an issue. Indeed, this process is difficult since it can be obtained usually after a number of students contribute clues. The second type of modeling is found as question and comment generation. It can be categorized as talk-aloud modeling.

5) Inviting students to contribute clues

In the learning process, the teacher should give students motivation and stimulation to contribute clues when completing the task given. When few students can take part in contributing clues, the teacher can help them interpreting their opinion and verbalizing them. While the process is taking place, the teacher encourages the students to say aloud about what clue they are trying to reveal.

The fifth type of scaffolding was one in which several students contributed clues for reasoning through the issue or problem. In this form of scaffolding, learners were encouraged to offer clues about how to complete the task. Together, the teachers and students verbalized the process (27).

Having learned the types of scaffolding, the writer hereby managed a study to identify the occurrence of those five types of scaffolding and figure out what functions are obtained from the use of scaffolding during the English conversation class best fitted. This theory is used to seek the answer of the first research question.

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According to Henry (2002), scaffolding is not an isolated teaching technique. Instead, teacher should employ scaffolding technique by increasing the difficulty constantly. In other words, scaffolding should be rotated in the use. Nevertheless, student centered is the majority of the instruction, yet, the presence of the teacher to support the students is essential.

According to Bransford, Brown, and Cooking (2000), the scaffolding provided in learning process exists for kind of activities and tasks that:

1) Motivate or enlist the child’s interest related to the task

2) Simplify the task to make it more manageable and achievable for a child 3) Provide some direction in order to help the child focus on achieving the goal 4) Clearly indicate difference between the child’s work and the standard or

desired solution

5) Reduce frustration and risk

6) Model and clearly define the expectations of the activity to be performed

Van Der Stuyf quotes Hartman’s statement that scaffolding in the educational setting may include models, cues, prompts, hints, partial solutions, think-aloud modeling and direct instruction. A teacher can also use a problem and complete a task. The teacher will get various responds from the students after giving questions. The correct answers must be expected, but the fact is, the answer can always be wrong. Therefore, the teacher can increase the level of questioning or specificity until the students are able to provide a correct response. This kind of scaffolding is presented in the following example. According to Olson and Platt as qcited in Van Der Stuyf, they state:

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“… if you receive no response or an incorrect response after asking the question, ‘How do we change lady to ladies?’ you should proceed with a more intrusive verbal prompt, ‘What is the rule?’ to remind the student that there is a rule. If necessary, continue with, ‘What do we do when a word ends in y to make it plural?’ to give the student a part of the rule.” When the teacher observes that the students’ comprehension have evolved, the amount of questions should be decreased step by step until students can do the task independently without prompting.

As the consequences of following scaffolding technique, a teacher can have their students working collaboratively. It means that students do their task within their groups as well as individually, but still with teachers’ assistance. Hartman states that, “this can serve as a step in the process of decreasing the scaffolds provided by the educator and needed by students” (as cited in Van Der Stuyf, 2002).

According to McKenzie (2000), there are eight characteristics of scaffolding:

1) Provide clear directions

A teacher provides step-by-step instructions that give clear explanation about what students must do to complete their task and to reach the goal. It is done in order to avoid problems or misunderstanding that students might encounter during the learning process. Through scaffolding, teachers reduce students’ confusion. Avoiding the confusion can support the effort to achieve success in teaching learning process.

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2) Clarify purpose

A teacher explains the learning purpose and keeps students’ motivation during the lesson. By using scaffolding, the teacher helps students to understand the meaning and the worth of the lesson. Students are led to consider about why they are doing the work and why it is important. With understanding the purpose of the lesson clearly, the students can be motivated to do the process as they keep in mind about where they will go and what they will achieve.

3) Keep students on task

According to McKenzie (2000), scaffolding is “somewhat like the guard rail of a mountain highway.” Scaffolding provides pathway for the learners to keep on track. When the teacher provides clear directions, they are more than just directions, but also structure and guidance, which provide steps to keep students on the designated task. There will be more than one step to choose, but students will not be lost because they are controlled while the activities are in progress. Along the process of the scaffolding, the presence of the teacher is essential to guide the students, until there is a right time to let students learn without the teacher assistance, but the teacher keep watching them ever since.

4) Offer assessment to clarify expectations

Assessment is one important aspect in teaching learning process. From the very beginning, the teacher has given examples of work quality done by others. The examples given are the way the teacher offers the assessment. The teacher shows standards that define expectations. Students accept the standards so they are able to identify the process that they must carry out to meet the expectations

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clarified. In the end of the teaching learning process, the expectations are fulfilled by students, as well as by the teacher.

5) Point students to worthy sources

In order to complete a task, a teacher provides sources to avoid students from being confused and frustrated. The sources are also useful to shorten the time in carrying out the task given. Provided by sources, students are about to decide which sources they will use.

6) Reduce uncertainty, surprise and disappointment

A teacher examines every step taken by students during the lesson to see what possibly goes wrong. It is to reduce frustrations within students so the learning process can be effective and efficient. Then, the teacher refines the lesson to eliminate the difficulties that might happen. The teacher hereby watches the students to carry out the activities, in which they gain new insights of what they have carried out.

7) Deliver efficiency

Since scaffolding used in the lesson shows focus, clarity, and time on task, scaffolding offers efficiency because students are channeled to their task in such good ways. “Scaffolding lesson still require hard work, but the work is so well-centered on the inquiry”. Scaffolding encourages students to create work effort in order to do tasks and activities given in the class.

8) Create momentum

“The channeling achieved through scaffolding concentrates and directs energy in ways that actually build into momentum.” It is a moment when students

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are provoked and inspired to have thoughts in their mind and to accumulate insight and understanding.

2. English Conversation Class

Since this study is conducted in English conversation class, the understanding of its aspects is important in order to understand deeper the purposes of why this class or program is held.

a. The Nature of Conversation

From its name, the primary aspect to concern is conversation. Conversation has its own characteristics. First, according to Hymes, conversation is “a type of speech event” (as cited in Richards, 1980, p. 14) which is different from lectures, interviews and courtroom trials. Richards (1980) points out that conversation involves cooperative construction which based on contributions, assumptions, expectations, and interpretations of the participants’ utterances (p. 414). Therefore, conversation, according to Nunan (1999), becomes negotiated and self-regulated process (226). Thornbury and Slade (2006) state that conversation is fragmented and constructed through short, frequent turns that consist of phrases and clauses (p. 13). The varying levels existing among the students tend to inhibit conversational flow in English conversation class.

Second, according to Dornyei and Thurrell (1992), conversation is characterized as a cooperative discourse that is managed by interactive rules and routines (p. 3). It means that there are turn-taking mechanisms which exist in conversation and are done frequently. Third, Thornbury and Slade (2006) affirm that conversation has characteristics of social because it contains of few aspects of

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social element such as, mutual relationship and agreement, phatic language, the maintaining and modification of social identity, and the involvement of interpersonal skills (p. 17). This social element is expressed through wishes, feelings, attitudes opinions and judgments, which will influence the formal nature of the classroom when teaching English conversation. As stated by McLuham, conversation is also multi-sensory (as cited in Cane, 1998, p. 32). It consists of features which influence the conversational flow, such as eye contact, facial expressions, body language, tempo, pauses, voice quality changes, and pitch variation. There is also culture that seems to integrate in the construction of conversation and will affect the way English conversation is taught and learned.

According to Nunan (1999), conversation is a way to communicate verbally for interactional and transactional purposes (p. 228). Interactional language is purposed to use in social interaction, while transactional language is for service encounters like ordering food or buying tickets. Conversation is also used to do some speech acts or speech functions, such as apologizing, promising, and inviting. Another function of conversation is to remark relationships, which suspend social distance, status, and power as stated in Richards and Sukwiwat (1983, p. 117). These functions must be present in English conversation class. b. English Conversation Class in SMAN 1 Kalasan

Related to this study, English conversation class is an extracurricular held by SMAN 1 Kalasan. _{English conversation is a special program that aims to} effectively improve students’ spoken English in conversation. Through English conversation class, the students are expected to be used to speak and understand

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English confidently and rapidly. The teachers are demanded to create materials and activities that suitable to meet the needs of the students.

In order to come up with the answers, a study was conducted. The teaching-learning process was conducted on learning English conversation in the classroom within some literacy activities, namely, reading, writing, listening, and speaking, with the topic of drama. The material used in the teaching learning process is suggested by Maley and Duff (2005). They state that drama can integrate both verbal and non-verbal communication and it can make the classroom situation alive (p. 1). Moreover, Maley and Duff suggest techniques and activities that will be substantially useful to the development of students’ language ability, especially English spoken ability. The essential part that teachers can take is that teachers do not need to be a trained drama expert to introduce and offer the whole drama materials. Teachers need to be convinced when doing the activities so the students will not sense any nervousness. Teachers can be the key to the success of the activities (p. 4).

To create and build students’ eagerness in order to start the new topic, the writer led the students to do some preparation. It was a warming-up activity, which was done within a pair for getting ready to the main activity. It was done for more or less ten minutes or whenever the teacher felt enough. After the warming-up activity was finished, the teaching-learning process was started. The first teaching-learning experience was initiated through a discussion in which the students were encouraged to be involved in a brainstorming session about their prior knowledge of drama (Maley & Duff, 2005). The students were asked and

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motivated to contribute and speak up their ideas about words and elements they already know, in relation to drama. It was to prepare and direct students’ enthusiasm to go to the topic, which was about drama. Along this activity, the investigation of the occurrence of scaffolding and its types had been started. After the introduction about the topic was done, the students were going to the next activity, which was called working from scenarios or scripts, as suggested by Maley and Duff (2005, p 207- 208). The students worked in pairs. Each pair was given a same short dialogue that was a part of scenario or scripts. They were asked to interpret the same short dialogue. The determined scripts were the words to be spoken, and the students were given the opportunity and time to think about the detailed description of the characters and the way they moved and spoke, and even the setting that might happen, according to the given scripts. With the same dialogue given to all of the students on each time, each pair would have their own interpretations, event though they were circumscribed by the script. Along this activity, the teacher provided her support and assistance whenever the students needed it. In the end, the students were going to perform the short dialogues in front of the class. There were various stories that were performed, as the results of their own interpretations.

3. The Second Grade Students of High School

In this study, the writer took second grade students of SMAN 1 Kalasan_to be the participants. Hence, it is important to understand about the second grade high school students’ characteristics as human beings and as learners. According to Erikson, second grade students of senior high school are in the period of

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102 B: Really? Are you sure?

A: This isn’t the first time. She’s done it before. Now she’s run off

again.

B: Are you really surprised, after the way you treated her?

Collect the students’ scripts for correction and feedback in the next

class.

b.

Dialogue interpretation

Aim: to encourage the imaginative interpretation of a script

Focus: vocabulary will depend on the situation chosen; intonation to

convey emotional charge, surprise, etc.; language of discussion and

evaluation

Time: one hour

Preparation: you will need a number of short dialogues open to various

interpretations – enough copies for one between two.

Procedure:

1)

Students work in pairs. Distribute the same dialogue per pair.

Explain that they have to set their dialogue in a specific context.

They will need to decide who is speaking, where they are, what the

topic is, what exactly is going on. Allow ten minutes for this.

2)

In a whole-class session, collect ideas from students arising from

their discussion.

3)

Allow another ten minutes for pairs to rehearse their dialogues.

Partners should take turns at reading A and B so that they each get

the feel for the speaker. Finally, they perform their dialogues for the

whole class.

Either in class, if there is time, or as homework, students should

extend the dialogues into a slightly longer script, by adding a couple

of lines at the beginning and some concluding lines. Encourage them

to add stage directions, to give A and B names, etc.

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G. Learning Source

Duff, A. & Maley, A. (2005). Drama Techniques: A Resource Book of

Communication Activities for Language Teachers (3

ed.).

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

H. Scoring

Role-Play Scoring Guide

Criteria

Score 4

Excellent

3 Proficient

2 Adequate

1 Limited Presentation

of Character

Always willing and focused during group work and presentation.

Usually willing and focused during group work and presentation.

Sometimes willing and focused during group work and presentation.

Rarely willing and focused during group work and presentation. Imagination

and Creativity

Choices demonstrate insight and powerfully enhance role-play.

Choices demonstrate thoughtfulness and completely enhance role-play.

Choices demonstrate awareness and developing acceptably enhance role-play.

Choices demonstrate little

awareness and do little to enhance role-play.

Presentation of Perspective

Speaks clearly and loudly when presenting using voice intonation and expression.

For the most part, speaks clearly and loudly, using voice intonation and expression.

Speaks somewhat clearly. There is some voice intonation and expression used.

Presentation is not clear. Little to no intonation and expression used. Cooperation

with Partner

Actively works with partner to accomplish task. Works well, is on task, and is a

contributing member.

Works with partner to accomplish task. Works well, is mostly on task, and is a contributing member with few needed cues from the

teacher.

Works with partner, but is somewhat off task. His / her partner does a greater share of the work.

Is off task and contributes little to nothing to the group.

Total score

: (4 + 4 + 4 + 4) x 5 = 10

8

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(6)

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The use of scaffolding teaching technique to teach second grade students of SMAN 1 Kalasan in English conversation class.

102

B: Really? Are you sure?

A: This isn’t the first time. She’s done it before. Now she’s run off

again.

B: Are you really surprised, after the way you treated her?

Collect the students’ scripts for correction and feedback in the next

class.

b.

Dialogue interpretation

Aim: to encourage the imaginative interpretation of a script

Focus: vocabulary will depend on the situation chosen; intonation to

convey emotional charge, surprise, etc.; language of discussion and

evaluation

Time: one hour

Preparation: you will need a number of short dialogues open to various

interpretations – enough copies for one between two.

Procedure:

1)

Students work in pairs. Distribute the same dialogue per pair.

Explain that they have to set their dialogue in a specific context.

They will need to decide who is speaking, where they are, what the

topic is, what exactly is going on. Allow ten minutes for this.

2)

In a whole-class session, collect ideas from students arising from

their discussion.

3)

Allow another ten minutes for pairs to rehearse their dialogues.

Partners should take turns at reading A and B so that they each get

the feel for the speaker. Finally, they perform their dialogues for the

whole class.

Either in class, if there is time, or as homework, students should

extend the dialogues into a slightly longer script, by adding a couple

of lines at the beginning and some concluding lines. Encourage them

to add stage directions, to give A and B names, etc.

G.

Learning Source

Duff, A. & Maley, A. (2005). Drama Techniques: A Resource Book of

Communication Activities for Language Teachers (3

ed.).

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

H.

Scoring

Total score

: (4 + 4 + 4 + 4) x 5 = 10

8

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