World Social Protection Report 2014 15. 45417
Building economic recovery,
inclusive development
and social justice
2014/15
World Social Protection Report 2014/15
Building economic recovery, inclusive development and social justice
World Social Protection Report 2014/15
Building economic recovery, inclusive development and social justice
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE • GENEVA
Copyright © International Labour Organization 2014
First published 2014
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World Social Protection Report 2014/15: Building economic recovery, inclusive development and social justice
International Labour Office – Geneva: ILO, 2014
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Preface
ince its creation in 1919, the ILO has been supporting countries to develop and implement social security systems for all. here has been tremendous progress since
then. At the outset, some 40 countries were starting to build such schemes; today, all
countries in the world have a social security system.
What is more, social protection coverage and beneits continue to expand, as relected in the groundbreaking ILO Recommendation concerning National Floors of
Social Protection (No. 202), adopted in 2012. he Recommendation bears witness to
the joint commitment of governments, employers and workers to building nationally
deined social protection loors which guarantee at least a basic level of social security
to all, encompassing access to health care and income security throughout people’s lives
and ensuring their dignity and rights. While social protection loors are essential, the
Recommendation does not stop there: it also sets out detailed guidance on building
comprehensive social protection systems.
Two years ater the adoption of the Recommendation, this World Social Protection
Report ofers a comprehensive body of evidence both on the impressive progress made
over the last few years and on the remaining gaps that need to be illed. Based on a lifecycle approach, the report provides an overview of the current organization of social
protection systems, coverage, benefits and expenditures. With its global scope and
valuable statistical annexes, it is an essential reference for anyone interested in social
protection.
In recent years, the ILO has provided technical assistance on social protection to no
fewer than 136 countries. And we are proud to continue our support all over the world,
as more and more evidence shows that social protection systems play a key role in the
functioning of modern societies and are an essential ingredient of integrated strategies
for economic and social development. Furthermore, experience since 2008 shows that
countries with adequate social protection systems were able to respond more quickly
and efectively to the global crisis.
Yet some 73 per cent of the world’s population continues to live without adequate
social protection coverage. In other words, for the large majority of people the fundamental human right to social security is only partially realized or not at all. In
2014, it is clear that the global community needs to make greater eforts in realizing this right. With this in view, it is opportune to recall the many countries that
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historically have built sound economies at the same time as decent societies with
social protection.
Still grappling with the economic repercussions of the global inancial crisis, the
world is faced with a deep social crisis which is also a crisis of social justice. Fiscal consolidation and adjustment measures threaten household living standards in a signiicant number of countries. Despite progress made in reducing levels of extreme poverty
in some parts of the world, high levels of poverty and vulnerability persist; what is
more, poverty is actually increasing in many high-income countries. In addition, high
and still rising levels of inequality in both advanced and developing economies are
widely acknowledged as cause for great concern.
Social protection measures are essential elements of a policy response that can address those challenges. hey not only support the realization of the universal human
right to social security, but are both a social and an economic necessity. Well-designed
social protection systems support incomes and domestic consumption, build human
capital and increase productivity. he bold eforts in extending social protection in
many developing countries, from Brazil to China, from Ecuador to Mozambique, have
underlined its key role in reducing poverty and vulnerability, redressing inequality and
boosting inclusive growth.
his is an issue that the international community should embrace as a priority in
the post-2015 development agenda. Social protection can ensure that all people have
the security of knowing that if they lose their job or fall ill, and also when they grow
old, they will not face the risk of poverty and insecurity. Our modern society can aford
to provide universal social protection everywhere.
I hope that this report will be a useful tool for practitioners, and provide the basis
for better informed policy-making.
Geneva, June 2014
Guy Ryder
Director-General
International Labour Oice
Acknowledgements
his report was drafted by a team supervised by the Director of the ILO Social
Protection Department, Isabel Ortiz, consisting of Krzysztof Hagemejer, formerly
Chief of the Social Policy, Governance and Standards Branch; Anne Drouin, Chief of
the Public Finance, Actuarial and Statistics Services Branch; Florence Bonnet, Social
Security Statistics Coordinator; Christina Behrendt, Senior Social Protection Policy
Specialist; Emmanuelle St-Pierre Guilbault, Legal Specialist; Xenia Scheil-Adlung,
Coordinator Social Health Protection; and John Woodall, formerly Coordinator
Pension Policy.
T
Substantial inputs to the report were received from Matthew Cummins, Social and
Economic Policy Specialist at the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), and
several colleagues in the ILO Social Protection Department, including Fabio Durán
Valverde, Senior Specialist Social Security; Aidi Hu, Coordinator Country Operations,
Asia; Cristina Lloret, Junior Social Security Actuary; Helmut Schwarzer, Senior Social
Security Specialist for the Americas and the Caribbean; Maya Stern-Plaza, Junior
Legal Oicer; Victoire Umuhire, Junior Legal Oicer; Veronika Wodsak, Technical
Oicer Social Security; Hiroshi Yamabana, Social Security Actuary; and Katharina
Diekmann, Zita Herman, Vinu Parakkal Menon and Nicholas Teasdale-Boivin.
The report benefited from comments from colleagues in other ILO technical
departments and ield oices, including Manuela Tomei, Director of the Conditions
of Work and Equality Department; Michelle Leighton, Chief of the Labour Migration
Branch; Philippe Marcadent, Chief of the Inclusive Labour Markets, Labour Relations
and Working Conditions Branch; Shauna Olney, Chief of the Gender, Equality and
Diversity Branch; Alice Ouedraogo, Chief of the HIV/AIDS and the World of Work
Branch; Laura Addati, Maternity Protection and Work–Family Specialist; Janine Berg,
Senior Development Economist; Fabio Bertranou, Senior Labour Market and Social
Protection Specialist, ILO Buenos Aires; Theopiste Butare, Senior Social Security
Technical Specialist, ILO Yaoundé; Pablo Casalí, Senior Social Security Specialist,
ILO Lima; Luis Casanova, National Officer, ILO Buenos Aires; Raphael Crowe,
Senior Gender Specialist; Adrienne Cruz, Senior Gender Specialist; Loveleen De,
Social Security Consultant, ILO Bangkok; Juan De Laiglesia, Economist and Labour
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World Social Protection Report 2014/15
Market Specialist; Maria Gallotti, Specialist in Migration Policies; Youcef Ghellab,
Head Social Dialogue and Tripartism Unit; Frank Hofer, Senior Research Oicer,
ILO Bureau for Workers’ Activities; Lee-Nah Hsu, Technical Specialist on HIV/
AIDS; Kroum Markov, Legal Specialist; Barbara Murray, Senior Disability Specialist;
Susan Maybud, Senior Gender Specialist; Seil Oh, Social Security Officer, ILO
Bangkok; Céline Peyron Bista, Chief Technical Adviser, ILO Bangkok; Markus Ruck,
Senior Social Security Specialist, ILO New Delhi; Catherine Saget, Senior Economist;
Francis Sanzouango, Employer Relations Specialist, Bureau for Employers’ Activities;
Sinta Satriana, Social Security Consultant, ILO Bangkok; Valérie Schmitt, Senior
Social Security Specialist, ILO Bangkok; Stefan Trömel, Senior Disability Specialist;
Catherine Vaillancourt-Lalamme, Chief Technical Adviser, ILO Manila. Comments
and guidance from the ILO’s Deputy Director-General for Policy, Sandra Polaski, are
especially appreciated.
viii
he ILO is also grateful for the helpful comments received from other United Nations
organizations, including from Diana Barrowclough, Senior Economic Afairs Oicer
at the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD); Michael
Clark, Special Adviser on International Governance at the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO); Sarah Cook, Director of the United Nations Research Institute
for Social Development (UNRISD); Christian Courtis, Human Rights Officer at
the Oice of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR); Frédéric
Dévé, Governance Adviser, FAO; David Evans, Director of the Department of Health
Systems Financing, World Health Organization (WHO); Lynn Gentile, Human
Rights Oicer, OHCHR; Catalina Gomez, Social Protection Consultant, UNICEF;
Katja Hujo, Research Coordinator, UNRISD; Alex Izurieta, Senior Economic Afairs
Officer, UNCTAD; Gabriele Köhler, formerly South Asia Regional Adviser on
Social Policy, UNICEF; Hans-Horst Konkolewsky, Secretary-General, International
Social Security Association; Joseph Kutzin, Coordinator, Health Financing Policy,
WHO; Daniel Lopez Acuña, Adviser to the Director General, WHO; Sheila Murthi,
Social Protection Consultant, UNICEF; Krista Orama, Focal Point for the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities, OHCHR; Shahra Razavi, Chief Research and Data Section,
UNWOMEN; Stefania Tripodi, Human Rights Oicer, OHCHR; Jenn Yablonski,
Social Protection Specialist, UNICEF; Ilcheong Yi, Research Coordinator, UNRISD;
Michael Cichon, former Director of the ILO Social Security Department and now
President of the International Council on Social Welfare; and for the comments of
three anonymous peer reviewers.
hanks are also due to those who facilitated the editing, production, publication and
dissemination of this report in their diferent roles, including Charlotte Beauchamp,
Raphaël Crettaz, Laetitia Dard, Chris Edgar, José Antonio Garcia, Victoria GiroudCastiella, Jean-Luc Martinage, Michel Masurel, Martin Murphy, Marcia Poole, Karuna
Pal, Ksenija Radojevic Bovet, Damien Riunaud, Dalibor Rodinis, Hans von Rohland,
Gillian Somerscales and Hans Christian Weidmann.
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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List of igures . . . . . .
List of tables . . . . . . .
List of boxes . . . . . . .
List of abbreviations .
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Executive summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xxi
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1 A right unfulilled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Building social protection systems: A historical overview, 1900–2012
1.3 Fiscal consolidation: Setbacks 2010–15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 he way forward: Building national social protection loors
and social security systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 Objective and structure of the report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6 Building the knowledge base on social protection statistics . . . . . . . . .
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2. Social protection for children and families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1 he role of social protection in ensuring children’s well-being . .
2.2 Expenditure on social protection for children and families . . . .
2.3 Extent of legal coverage: Child and family beneit programmes
anchored in national legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Closing coverage gaps and strengthening income security
for children and families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 How iscal consolidation and adjustment measures threaten
income security for children and families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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3. Social protection for women and men of working age . . . . . . . . .
3.1 Introduction: he quest for income security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Unemployment protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 Protecting incomes, cushioning demand shocks
and facilitating structural change in the economy . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 Types of unemployment protection schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3 Legal coverage for unemployment beneits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.4 Efective coverage by unemployment beneits . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.5 Unemployment protection for young people . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.6 Expanding unemployment protection in emerging economies .
3.2.7 Unemployment beneits as a key element of crisis response
and iscal consolidation measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.8 Renewed emphasis on (re-)integrating unemployed workers
into the labour market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.9 Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Employment injury protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1 Protecting workers afected by employment injury . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2 Types of employment injury protection schemes . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.3 Extent of legal coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.4 Extent of efective coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.5 Adequacy of beneits to cover workers’ needs . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.6 Recent developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.7 Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 Disability beneits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.1 Protecting and enabling persons with disabilities . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.2 Types of disability beneit schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.3 Efective coverage for disability beneits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.4 Recent developments and challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Maternity protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1 Maternity protection: Ensuring income security, maternal
health care and women’s rights at work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.2 Types of maternity protection schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.3 Extent of legal coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.4 Extent of efective coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.5 Adequacy of maternity beneits in ensuring income security
during maternity leave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.6 Access to maternal health care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.7 Recent developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4. Social protection for older women and men:
Pensions and other non-health beneits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1 he crucial role of pensions in ensuring income security
and well-being of older persons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Types of pension schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Extent of legal coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Extent of efective coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1 Income security in old age: A right still unfulilled for many . . . . . .
4.4.2 Changes in pension coverage across the world: Progress and regression
4.4.3 Persistent inequalities in access to income security in old age . . . . . .
4.5 he adequacy of pensions to provide genuine income security
to older persons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Contents
4.5.1 Guaranteeing income replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.2 Preventing erosion of the value of pensions over time: Ensuring regular
adjustments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 Reforming and re-reforming pension systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7 Ensuring income security for older persons: he continuing challenge . .
5. Towards universal coverage in health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1 he crucial role of universal health coverage for individuals
and the economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 he foundation of universal coverage in health in international
labour standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Coverage deicits, especially in low-income countries . . . . . . . . .
5.4 Afordability and risk of impoverishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5 Protection from income loss: he beneits of paid sick leave . . . .
5.6 Financing mechanisms for universal coverage in health . . . . . . .
5.7 Levels of public and private health expenditure . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.8 he global shortage of health workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.9 Inadequate levels of pay for health workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.10 Fiscal consolidation measures: Drivers of economic recovery
or part of the problem? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.11 Addressing the challenges: Achieving sustainable progress
in access to health care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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6. Expanding social protection: Key to crisis recovery,
inclusive development and social justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1 Grappling with recession and slow growth:
Social protection and the global crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.1 Social protection in the irst phase of the global crisis:
Expansion and iscal stimulus (2008–09) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.2 Social protection in the second phase of the global crisis:
Fiscal consolidation (2010 and ater) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.3 Divergent trends across countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 High-income countries: Fiscal consolidation and its efects . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1 Overview: Prioritizing inancial sector recovery over
social protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2 First phase of the crisis: Scaling up social protection to sustain
households’ disposable income and domestic demand (2008–09) .
6.2.3 Second phase of the global crisis: Fiscal consolidation,
2010 onwards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.4 Adequate transfers, taxes and social dialogue:
Key elements of a socially responsive recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 Middle-income countries: Inclusive growth through social protection .
6.3.1 Signiicant extension of social protection coverage . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.2 Towards more inclusive growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Low-income countries: Beyond safety nets, towards social
protection loor guarantees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.1 Against the odds: Extending social protection coverage
in low-income countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.2 Expanding social protection using proceeds from iscal
consolidation and adjustment measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.3 Beyond safety nets: Towards national social protection loors . . . .
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World Social Protection Report 2014/15
6.5 Fiscal space for social protection loors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.1 Option 1: Reallocating current public expenditures . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.2 Option 2: Increasing tax revenues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.3 Option 3: Extending social security contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.4 Option 4: Borrowing or restructuring existing debt . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.5 Option 5: Curtailing illicit inancial lows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.6 Option 6: Drawing on increased aid and transfers . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.7 Option 7: Using iscal and central bank foreign exchange reserves .
6.5.8 Option 8: Adopting a more accommodating
macroeconomic framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6 Why social protection loors are key to recovery and must be part
of the post-2015 development agenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6.1 Social protection loors reduce poverty and inequalities . . . . . . . . .
6.6.2 Social protection loors promote decent employment
and inclusive growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6.3 Leaving no one behind: Social protection loors to change
people’s lives by 2030 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xii
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ANNEXES
Annex I. Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Annex II. Measuring social security coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Annex III. Minimum requirements in ILO social security standards:
Overview tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Annex IV. Statistical tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unemployment (tables B.3, B.4) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maternity (table B.5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Old age (tables B.6, B.7, B.8, B.9) . . . . . . . . . . . .
Health-speciic indicators (tables B.10, B.11) . . . .
Social protection expenditure (tables B.12, B.13) .
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Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Contents
List of igures
1.1 Towards comprehensive social security systems: Number of areas
covered in social protection programmes anchored in national
legislation, 1900–2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Development of social protection programmes anchored in national
legislation by area (branch), pre-1900 to post-2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1 Expenditure on child beneits by region, and proportion of children
aged 0–14 in total population, 2010/11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Public social protection expenditure on child and family beneits
(excluding health), 2010/11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Overview of child and family cash beneit programmes anchored
in national legislation, by type of scheme and groups covered, 2012/13 .
2.4 Child/family allowances: Distribution of programmes anchored
in legislation, by type of programme, 2011–13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Child/family allowances: Existence of programme anchored
in legislation and main group(s) covered, by region, 2011–13 . . . . . . . .
2.6 Child/family allowances: Main sources of inancing, 2011–13 . . . . . . .
2.7 Level of expenditure and proportion of population reached
by non-contributory conditional cash transfer programmes
in selected Latin American countries, latest available year . . . . . . . . . . .
3
5
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3.1 Non-health public social protection expenditure for people
of working age, and share of people of working age (15–64)
in the total population, 2010/11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Non-health public social protection expenditure for people
of working age, by national income, 2010/11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Overview of unemployment protection schemes anchored
in national legislation, by type of scheme and beneit, 2012/13 . . . . . . . .
3.4 Distribution of unemployment protection schemes worldwide
by type of scheme, 2012/13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Distribution of unemployment protection schemes worldwide
by extent of legal coverage of the labour force, latest available year . . . . .
3.6 Unemployment protection schemes: Extent of legal coverage,
regional estimates, latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7 Efective coverage of unemployment beneits: Unemployed who actually
receive cash beneits, regional estimates, 2007, 2009 and 2012/13 . . . . .
3.8 Efective coverage of unemployment beneits: Unemployed who actually
receive cash beneits, latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9 Efective coverage of unemployment beneits: Unemployed
who actually receive cash beneits, latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.10 Proportion of unemployed receiving unemployment beneits and relative
poverty rates for the unemployed, selected European countries, 2012 . . .
3.11 Unemployed receiving unemployment cash beneits, all ages
and youth, 2012/13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.12 Employment injury protection: Distribution by type
of programme, 2012/13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.13 Employment injury protection: Regional estimates of legal coverage
(total and women), latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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3.14 Employment injury protection: Legal and efective coverage,
latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.15 Employment injury protection: Replacement rates for permanent disability
3.16 Employment injury protection: Replacement rates for temporary disability
3.17 Overview of cash disability beneit programmes anchored in national
legislation, by type of programme and beneit, 2012/13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.18 Income support for persons with disabilities: Existence and type
of programmes, 2012/13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.19 Europe: Persons with disabilities in working age and recipients
of disability beneits, 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.20 Europe: Rates of poverty risk among those of working age (16–64)
by disability status, 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.21 Maternity cash beneit schemes anchored in national legislation:
Types of schemes, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.22 Legal (mandatory) coverage for maternity cash beneits: Women
in employment protected by law for loss of income during maternity . . . .
3.23 Efective coverage for maternity cash beneits: Women in employment
contributing to maternity cash beneits schemes or otherwise entitled
to such beneits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.24 Duration of paid maternity leave in national legislation, 2013 . . . . . . . . .
3.25 Level of maternity cash beneits as a proportion of previous
earnings, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.26 Antenatal care coverage by region, latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.27 Antenatal care coverage by social health protection coverage,
latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.28 Inequities in access to maternal health services by wealth quintile
and national income level, latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.29 Maternal mortality ratio (per 100,000 live births) and live births attended
by skilled health personnel, according to national income level, 2011 . . . .
4.1 Sources of income of people aged 65 and over, OECD countries . . . . . . . .
4.2 Correlation between greater public pension provision
and lower poverty levels, OECD countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Overview of old-age pension schemes anchored in national legislation,
by type of scheme, 2012/13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Non-health public social protection expenditure on pensions
and other beneits for older persons, and share of older population
(65 and above) in total population, 2010/11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 Non-health public social protection expenditure on pensions
and other beneits for older persons, 2010/11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 Long-term care expenditure as a proportion of GDP, 2010
and projections for 2060 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7 Old-age pensions: Extent of legal coverage, by region, latest available year
4.8 Efective pension coverage ratios, by region, latest available year . . . . . . . .
4.9 Old-age pension beneiciaries as a proportion of the population
above statutory pensionable age, latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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List of igures
4.10 Old-age pension beneiciaries as a proportion of the population
above statutory pensionable age, 2000 and 2010–12 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.11 Comparison of the proportion of older persons receiving a pension,
2000 and 2010–12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.12 Proportions of women and men in employment contributing
to a pension scheme, by area of residence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.13 Proportions of women and men above statutory pensionable age
receiving an old-age (or survivors’) pension, by area of residence . . . .
4.14 Pensioners’ declining relative standard of living as a result of price
indexation or no indexation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.15 Average replacement rates at retirement in public pension schemes
in 2010 and projected for 2060, selected European countries . . . . . .
4.16 Minimum replacement rates necessary to guarantee pension income
above the poverty threshold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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5.1 Health coverage by region: Proportion of population ailiated
to national health services, or social, private or micro-insurance
schemes, latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Global health coverage: Proportion of population ailiated
to national health services, social, private or micro-insurance
schemes, latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Legal health coverage and poverty, latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 he global deicit in efective access to health services, 2011/12,
by level of country income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5 Legal health coverage and out-of-pocket payments in selected
African countries, 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6 Schematic overview of health-care inancing mechanisms currently in use
5.7 Coverage mechanisms used by countries with legal health coverage rates
of 80 per cent of the population or over, 2014 or latest available year . . . .
5.8 Sources of health-care inancing, by region, 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.9 Share of OOP expenditure in total health expenditure,
by proportion of the population living on less than US$2 a day PPP, 2011
5.10 Number of health workers required to close global and regional gaps
in universal health coverage, ILO estimate, 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.11 Yearly change in health workers’ remuneration as proportion of total
health expenditure and GDP, by national income level, 2000–10 . . . . . .
6.1 Social protection in stimulus packages, 2008–09 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Number of countries contracting public expenditures (year on year),
2008–16, relative to GDP and in real terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 Excessive iscal contraction: Projected decline in total government
expenditure relative to GDP, and in real government expenditure
(2013–15 average over 2005–07 average) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Public social protection expenditure as a percentage of GDP,
real GDP and real social protection expenditure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5 Trends in government and public social protection expenditure
per capita, 2007–09 and 2009–11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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6.6 Expansion of social protection in middle- and low-income countries:
Selected examples of new and expanded programmes, 2000–13 . . . . . . . .
6.7 Support for the inancial sector, iscal stimulus packages and public
debt increases, selected HICs, 2008–10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.8 Increase in the proportion of the population at risk of poverty
in 18 European countries between 2008 and 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.9 Distribution of expenditure-based versus revenue-based iscal
consolidation plans in 30 OECD countries, 2009–15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.10 he social and economic risks of iscal consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.11 Trends in real public social protection expenditure, GDP, consumption
and unemployment, 2007–12/13: United States, Japan, France
and Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.12 Contributions of various components to the growth of nominal gross
disposable income of households, European Area 17 countries, 2000–12
6.13 Annual changes in disposable income, 2007–10, by income component,
selected OECD countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.14 Reduction in gross theoretical replacement rates of statutory pensions
for average wage workers retiring at age 65 ater 40 years of contributions,
2010–50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.15 Real public social protection expenditure, unemployment and real GDP:
Recent developments in the four EU countries under economic adjustment
programmes, 2008–13: Ireland, Greece, Portugal and Cyprus . . . . . . . . .
6.16 Poverty rates in OECD countries before and ater taxes and social
protection transfers, latest available year (around 2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.17 Increase in public social protection expenditure,
selected middle-income countries, 2000 to latest year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.18 Increase in public social protection expenditure,
selected low-income countries, 2000 to latest year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.19 Total government spending in selected countries, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.20 Illicit inancial lows (IFF) versus oicial development
assistance (ODA), 2000–09 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.21 Public social protection expenditure (percentage of GDP) and proportion
of the population in poverty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.22 Public social protection expenditure (percentage of GDP) and income
equality (Gini coeicient), latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.23 Schematic representation of some of the positive impacts of the extension
of social protection on inclusive growth (short term) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.24 Schematic representation of some of the positive impacts of the extension
of social protection on inclusive growth (longer term) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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List of tables
List of tables
4.1 Indexation methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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List of boxes
1.1 he ILO’s normative framework for the extension of social security . . . . .
6
5.1 Global variations in sickness and sick leave beneits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Key aspects of performance associated with various health coverage and
inancing mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Numbers of medical personnel per 10,000 people, selected countries,
latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 Announced iscal consolidation policies and associated iscal savings,
selected countries, 2007–14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5 Announced cuts in public wages, selected European countries, 2010–13 .
5.6 Average annual increase in OOP, selected countries, 2007–11 . . . . . . . .
5.7 Key aspects of social protection loor policies aiming at achieving
universal coverage in health, based on Recommendation No. 202 . . . . . .
6.1 Main adjustment measures by region, 2010–13 . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Selected iscal consolidation measures recently adopted
or under discussion in high-income countries . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 Selected recent examples of the extension of social protection
in middle-income countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Selected recent examples of the extension of social protection
in low-income countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5 Fiscal space strategies: Country examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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3.1 International standards on unemployment protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Public employment programmes and their contribution to social protection
3.3 India’s Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee
Scheme (MGNREGS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 Keeping people in employment through part-time unemployment
beneits: he example of Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 From expansion to iscal consolidation: he examples of Slovenia and Spain
3.6 Measures facilitating return to work for parents with young children . . . .
3.7 International standards relevant for employment injury protection . . . . . .
3.8 he Rana Plaza disaster and its implications for social security
in cases of employment injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
39
International standards for child and family beneits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Child-sensitive social protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Social security systems and the prevention of child labour . . . . . . . . . . .
he universal child allowance in Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
he Child Support Grant in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Providing beneits for orphans and vulnerable children: he Livelihood
Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP) programme in Ghana . . . . . . .
2.7 he efects of iscal consolidation and adjustment measures
on child and family beneits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
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3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
xviii
Disability beneits for income protection: Relevant international standards
Income security for persons with disabilities: Illustrations from Europe . .
Recent developments: Country examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
How social protection can help persons with disabilities gain access
to employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
International standards relevant to maternity protection . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maternity protection: Collectively inanced schemes vs employer’s
liability provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maternity cash beneits: Some examples of recent expansion of coverage .
Measures to facilitate parents’ return to work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recent contraction measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1 International standards on old-age pensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 he crisis of the care economy: Risks associated with inattention
to long-term care needs in times of iscal consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Extension of social protection of older persons in China . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Trends in replacement rates and adequacy of pension payments . . . . . . .
4.5 Re-reforms and “un-privatizations” of pension systems in Latin America
and Central and Eastern Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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62
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70
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5.1 Approaching universal coverage in health: Anchored in ILO Conventions
and Recommendations and further international standards . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.1 From iscal stimulus to iscal consolidation –
Implications for social protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Using sovereign pension reserve funds to fund bailouts . . . . . . .
6.3 Iceland: A socially responsive recovery from the crisis . . . . . . . .
6.4 he role of social protection in the Brazilian model of domestic
demand-led growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5 Strengthening domestic demand-led growth in China through
increased wages and an expansion of social protection beneits .
6.6 Mozambique: Using a fuel subsidy to extend social protection .
6.7 Financing social protection from subsidy removal . . . . . . . . . . .
6.8 Taxing mineral and natural resource extraction to generate
iscal space for social protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.9 Ecuador: Using resources freed up by debt restructuring
for social protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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List of abbreviations
AAAQ
ADB
CCT
CIS
CRPD
DfID
ECLAC
EU
EU-SILC
FAO
GDP
HIC
ICESCR
IFF
IILS
ILO
IMF
ISSA
LEAP
MDG
MGNREGS
NDC
NGO
NHIS
OECD
OHCHR
availability, accessibility, acceptability and quality (criteria)
Asian Development Bank
conditional cash transfer
Commonwealth of Independent States
UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
Department for International Development (United Kingdom)
United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America
and the Caribbean
European Union
European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
gross domestic product
high-income country
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1966
illicit inancial lows
International Institute for Labour Studies
International Labour Oice/Organization
International Monetary Fund
International Social Security Association
Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty programme (Ghana)
Millennium Development Goal
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
(India)
notional deined contribution
non-governmental organization
National Health Insurance Scheme (Ghana)
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Oice of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
xix
World Social Protection Report 2014/15
OOP
PAYG
PEP
PPP
SSA
SWF
UDHR
UN
UNCTAD
UNDP
UNESCO
UNICEF
UNRISD
VAT
WHO
xx
out-of-pocket payments
pay-as-you-go
public employment programme
purchasing power parity
Social Security Administration of the United States
sovereign wealth fund
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948
United Nations
United Nat
inclusive development
and social justice
2014/15
World Social Protection Report 2014/15
Building economic recovery, inclusive development and social justice
World Social Protection Report 2014/15
Building economic recovery, inclusive development and social justice
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World Social Protection Report 2014/15: Building economic recovery, inclusive development and social justice
International Labour Office – Geneva: ILO, 2014
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Preface
ince its creation in 1919, the ILO has been supporting countries to develop and implement social security systems for all. here has been tremendous progress since
then. At the outset, some 40 countries were starting to build such schemes; today, all
countries in the world have a social security system.
What is more, social protection coverage and beneits continue to expand, as relected in the groundbreaking ILO Recommendation concerning National Floors of
Social Protection (No. 202), adopted in 2012. he Recommendation bears witness to
the joint commitment of governments, employers and workers to building nationally
deined social protection loors which guarantee at least a basic level of social security
to all, encompassing access to health care and income security throughout people’s lives
and ensuring their dignity and rights. While social protection loors are essential, the
Recommendation does not stop there: it also sets out detailed guidance on building
comprehensive social protection systems.
Two years ater the adoption of the Recommendation, this World Social Protection
Report ofers a comprehensive body of evidence both on the impressive progress made
over the last few years and on the remaining gaps that need to be illed. Based on a lifecycle approach, the report provides an overview of the current organization of social
protection systems, coverage, benefits and expenditures. With its global scope and
valuable statistical annexes, it is an essential reference for anyone interested in social
protection.
In recent years, the ILO has provided technical assistance on social protection to no
fewer than 136 countries. And we are proud to continue our support all over the world,
as more and more evidence shows that social protection systems play a key role in the
functioning of modern societies and are an essential ingredient of integrated strategies
for economic and social development. Furthermore, experience since 2008 shows that
countries with adequate social protection systems were able to respond more quickly
and efectively to the global crisis.
Yet some 73 per cent of the world’s population continues to live without adequate
social protection coverage. In other words, for the large majority of people the fundamental human right to social security is only partially realized or not at all. In
2014, it is clear that the global community needs to make greater eforts in realizing this right. With this in view, it is opportune to recall the many countries that
S
v
vi
historically have built sound economies at the same time as decent societies with
social protection.
Still grappling with the economic repercussions of the global inancial crisis, the
world is faced with a deep social crisis which is also a crisis of social justice. Fiscal consolidation and adjustment measures threaten household living standards in a signiicant number of countries. Despite progress made in reducing levels of extreme poverty
in some parts of the world, high levels of poverty and vulnerability persist; what is
more, poverty is actually increasing in many high-income countries. In addition, high
and still rising levels of inequality in both advanced and developing economies are
widely acknowledged as cause for great concern.
Social protection measures are essential elements of a policy response that can address those challenges. hey not only support the realization of the universal human
right to social security, but are both a social and an economic necessity. Well-designed
social protection systems support incomes and domestic consumption, build human
capital and increase productivity. he bold eforts in extending social protection in
many developing countries, from Brazil to China, from Ecuador to Mozambique, have
underlined its key role in reducing poverty and vulnerability, redressing inequality and
boosting inclusive growth.
his is an issue that the international community should embrace as a priority in
the post-2015 development agenda. Social protection can ensure that all people have
the security of knowing that if they lose their job or fall ill, and also when they grow
old, they will not face the risk of poverty and insecurity. Our modern society can aford
to provide universal social protection everywhere.
I hope that this report will be a useful tool for practitioners, and provide the basis
for better informed policy-making.
Geneva, June 2014
Guy Ryder
Director-General
International Labour Oice
Acknowledgements
his report was drafted by a team supervised by the Director of the ILO Social
Protection Department, Isabel Ortiz, consisting of Krzysztof Hagemejer, formerly
Chief of the Social Policy, Governance and Standards Branch; Anne Drouin, Chief of
the Public Finance, Actuarial and Statistics Services Branch; Florence Bonnet, Social
Security Statistics Coordinator; Christina Behrendt, Senior Social Protection Policy
Specialist; Emmanuelle St-Pierre Guilbault, Legal Specialist; Xenia Scheil-Adlung,
Coordinator Social Health Protection; and John Woodall, formerly Coordinator
Pension Policy.
T
Substantial inputs to the report were received from Matthew Cummins, Social and
Economic Policy Specialist at the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), and
several colleagues in the ILO Social Protection Department, including Fabio Durán
Valverde, Senior Specialist Social Security; Aidi Hu, Coordinator Country Operations,
Asia; Cristina Lloret, Junior Social Security Actuary; Helmut Schwarzer, Senior Social
Security Specialist for the Americas and the Caribbean; Maya Stern-Plaza, Junior
Legal Oicer; Victoire Umuhire, Junior Legal Oicer; Veronika Wodsak, Technical
Oicer Social Security; Hiroshi Yamabana, Social Security Actuary; and Katharina
Diekmann, Zita Herman, Vinu Parakkal Menon and Nicholas Teasdale-Boivin.
The report benefited from comments from colleagues in other ILO technical
departments and ield oices, including Manuela Tomei, Director of the Conditions
of Work and Equality Department; Michelle Leighton, Chief of the Labour Migration
Branch; Philippe Marcadent, Chief of the Inclusive Labour Markets, Labour Relations
and Working Conditions Branch; Shauna Olney, Chief of the Gender, Equality and
Diversity Branch; Alice Ouedraogo, Chief of the HIV/AIDS and the World of Work
Branch; Laura Addati, Maternity Protection and Work–Family Specialist; Janine Berg,
Senior Development Economist; Fabio Bertranou, Senior Labour Market and Social
Protection Specialist, ILO Buenos Aires; Theopiste Butare, Senior Social Security
Technical Specialist, ILO Yaoundé; Pablo Casalí, Senior Social Security Specialist,
ILO Lima; Luis Casanova, National Officer, ILO Buenos Aires; Raphael Crowe,
Senior Gender Specialist; Adrienne Cruz, Senior Gender Specialist; Loveleen De,
Social Security Consultant, ILO Bangkok; Juan De Laiglesia, Economist and Labour
vii
World Social Protection Report 2014/15
Market Specialist; Maria Gallotti, Specialist in Migration Policies; Youcef Ghellab,
Head Social Dialogue and Tripartism Unit; Frank Hofer, Senior Research Oicer,
ILO Bureau for Workers’ Activities; Lee-Nah Hsu, Technical Specialist on HIV/
AIDS; Kroum Markov, Legal Specialist; Barbara Murray, Senior Disability Specialist;
Susan Maybud, Senior Gender Specialist; Seil Oh, Social Security Officer, ILO
Bangkok; Céline Peyron Bista, Chief Technical Adviser, ILO Bangkok; Markus Ruck,
Senior Social Security Specialist, ILO New Delhi; Catherine Saget, Senior Economist;
Francis Sanzouango, Employer Relations Specialist, Bureau for Employers’ Activities;
Sinta Satriana, Social Security Consultant, ILO Bangkok; Valérie Schmitt, Senior
Social Security Specialist, ILO Bangkok; Stefan Trömel, Senior Disability Specialist;
Catherine Vaillancourt-Lalamme, Chief Technical Adviser, ILO Manila. Comments
and guidance from the ILO’s Deputy Director-General for Policy, Sandra Polaski, are
especially appreciated.
viii
he ILO is also grateful for the helpful comments received from other United Nations
organizations, including from Diana Barrowclough, Senior Economic Afairs Oicer
at the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD); Michael
Clark, Special Adviser on International Governance at the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO); Sarah Cook, Director of the United Nations Research Institute
for Social Development (UNRISD); Christian Courtis, Human Rights Officer at
the Oice of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR); Frédéric
Dévé, Governance Adviser, FAO; David Evans, Director of the Department of Health
Systems Financing, World Health Organization (WHO); Lynn Gentile, Human
Rights Oicer, OHCHR; Catalina Gomez, Social Protection Consultant, UNICEF;
Katja Hujo, Research Coordinator, UNRISD; Alex Izurieta, Senior Economic Afairs
Officer, UNCTAD; Gabriele Köhler, formerly South Asia Regional Adviser on
Social Policy, UNICEF; Hans-Horst Konkolewsky, Secretary-General, International
Social Security Association; Joseph Kutzin, Coordinator, Health Financing Policy,
WHO; Daniel Lopez Acuña, Adviser to the Director General, WHO; Sheila Murthi,
Social Protection Consultant, UNICEF; Krista Orama, Focal Point for the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities, OHCHR; Shahra Razavi, Chief Research and Data Section,
UNWOMEN; Stefania Tripodi, Human Rights Oicer, OHCHR; Jenn Yablonski,
Social Protection Specialist, UNICEF; Ilcheong Yi, Research Coordinator, UNRISD;
Michael Cichon, former Director of the ILO Social Security Department and now
President of the International Council on Social Welfare; and for the comments of
three anonymous peer reviewers.
hanks are also due to those who facilitated the editing, production, publication and
dissemination of this report in their diferent roles, including Charlotte Beauchamp,
Raphaël Crettaz, Laetitia Dard, Chris Edgar, José Antonio Garcia, Victoria GiroudCastiella, Jean-Luc Martinage, Michel Masurel, Martin Murphy, Marcia Poole, Karuna
Pal, Ksenija Radojevic Bovet, Damien Riunaud, Dalibor Rodinis, Hans von Rohland,
Gillian Somerscales and Hans Christian Weidmann.
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
v
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vii
List of igures . . . . . .
List of tables . . . . . . .
List of boxes . . . . . . .
List of abbreviations .
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xvii
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Executive summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xxi
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1 A right unfulilled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Building social protection systems: A historical overview, 1900–2012
1.3 Fiscal consolidation: Setbacks 2010–15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 he way forward: Building national social protection loors
and social security systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 Objective and structure of the report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6 Building the knowledge base on social protection statistics . . . . . . . . .
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2. Social protection for children and families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1 he role of social protection in ensuring children’s well-being . .
2.2 Expenditure on social protection for children and families . . . .
2.3 Extent of legal coverage: Child and family beneit programmes
anchored in national legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Closing coverage gaps and strengthening income security
for children and families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 How iscal consolidation and adjustment measures threaten
income security for children and families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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3. Social protection for women and men of working age . . . . . . . . .
3.1 Introduction: he quest for income security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Unemployment protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 Protecting incomes, cushioning demand shocks
and facilitating structural change in the economy . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 Types of unemployment protection schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3 Legal coverage for unemployment beneits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.4 Efective coverage by unemployment beneits . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.5 Unemployment protection for young people . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.6 Expanding unemployment protection in emerging economies .
3.2.7 Unemployment beneits as a key element of crisis response
and iscal consolidation measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.8 Renewed emphasis on (re-)integrating unemployed workers
into the labour market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.9 Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Employment injury protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1 Protecting workers afected by employment injury . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2 Types of employment injury protection schemes . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.3 Extent of legal coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.4 Extent of efective coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.5 Adequacy of beneits to cover workers’ needs . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.6 Recent developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.7 Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 Disability beneits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.1 Protecting and enabling persons with disabilities . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.2 Types of disability beneit schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.3 Efective coverage for disability beneits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.4 Recent developments and challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Maternity protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1 Maternity protection: Ensuring income security, maternal
health care and women’s rights at work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.2 Types of maternity protection schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.3 Extent of legal coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.4 Extent of efective coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.5 Adequacy of maternity beneits in ensuring income security
during maternity leave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.6 Access to maternal health care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.7 Recent developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4. Social protection for older women and men:
Pensions and other non-health beneits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1 he crucial role of pensions in ensuring income security
and well-being of older persons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Types of pension schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Extent of legal coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Extent of efective coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1 Income security in old age: A right still unfulilled for many . . . . . .
4.4.2 Changes in pension coverage across the world: Progress and regression
4.4.3 Persistent inequalities in access to income security in old age . . . . . .
4.5 he adequacy of pensions to provide genuine income security
to older persons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
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Contents
4.5.1 Guaranteeing income replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.2 Preventing erosion of the value of pensions over time: Ensuring regular
adjustments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 Reforming and re-reforming pension systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7 Ensuring income security for older persons: he continuing challenge . .
5. Towards universal coverage in health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1 he crucial role of universal health coverage for individuals
and the economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 he foundation of universal coverage in health in international
labour standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Coverage deicits, especially in low-income countries . . . . . . . . .
5.4 Afordability and risk of impoverishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5 Protection from income loss: he beneits of paid sick leave . . . .
5.6 Financing mechanisms for universal coverage in health . . . . . . .
5.7 Levels of public and private health expenditure . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.8 he global shortage of health workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.9 Inadequate levels of pay for health workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.10 Fiscal consolidation measures: Drivers of economic recovery
or part of the problem? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.11 Addressing the challenges: Achieving sustainable progress
in access to health care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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6. Expanding social protection: Key to crisis recovery,
inclusive development and social justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1 Grappling with recession and slow growth:
Social protection and the global crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.1 Social protection in the irst phase of the global crisis:
Expansion and iscal stimulus (2008–09) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.2 Social protection in the second phase of the global crisis:
Fiscal consolidation (2010 and ater) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.3 Divergent trends across countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 High-income countries: Fiscal consolidation and its efects . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1 Overview: Prioritizing inancial sector recovery over
social protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2 First phase of the crisis: Scaling up social protection to sustain
households’ disposable income and domestic demand (2008–09) .
6.2.3 Second phase of the global crisis: Fiscal consolidation,
2010 onwards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.4 Adequate transfers, taxes and social dialogue:
Key elements of a socially responsive recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 Middle-income countries: Inclusive growth through social protection .
6.3.1 Signiicant extension of social protection coverage . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.2 Towards more inclusive growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Low-income countries: Beyond safety nets, towards social
protection loor guarantees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.1 Against the odds: Extending social protection coverage
in low-income countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.2 Expanding social protection using proceeds from iscal
consolidation and adjustment measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.3 Beyond safety nets: Towards national social protection loors . . . .
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6.5 Fiscal space for social protection loors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.1 Option 1: Reallocating current public expenditures . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.2 Option 2: Increasing tax revenues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.3 Option 3: Extending social security contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.4 Option 4: Borrowing or restructuring existing debt . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.5 Option 5: Curtailing illicit inancial lows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.6 Option 6: Drawing on increased aid and transfers . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.7 Option 7: Using iscal and central bank foreign exchange reserves .
6.5.8 Option 8: Adopting a more accommodating
macroeconomic framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6 Why social protection loors are key to recovery and must be part
of the post-2015 development agenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6.1 Social protection loors reduce poverty and inequalities . . . . . . . . .
6.6.2 Social protection loors promote decent employment
and inclusive growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6.3 Leaving no one behind: Social protection loors to change
people’s lives by 2030 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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ANNEXES
Annex I. Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Annex II. Measuring social security coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Annex III. Minimum requirements in ILO social security standards:
Overview tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Annex IV. Statistical tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unemployment (tables B.3, B.4) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maternity (table B.5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Old age (tables B.6, B.7, B.8, B.9) . . . . . . . . . . . .
Health-speciic indicators (tables B.10, B.11) . . . .
Social protection expenditure (tables B.12, B.13) .
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Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Contents
List of igures
1.1 Towards comprehensive social security systems: Number of areas
covered in social protection programmes anchored in national
legislation, 1900–2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Development of social protection programmes anchored in national
legislation by area (branch), pre-1900 to post-2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1 Expenditure on child beneits by region, and proportion of children
aged 0–14 in total population, 2010/11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Public social protection expenditure on child and family beneits
(excluding health), 2010/11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Overview of child and family cash beneit programmes anchored
in national legislation, by type of scheme and groups covered, 2012/13 .
2.4 Child/family allowances: Distribution of programmes anchored
in legislation, by type of programme, 2011–13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Child/family allowances: Existence of programme anchored
in legislation and main group(s) covered, by region, 2011–13 . . . . . . . .
2.6 Child/family allowances: Main sources of inancing, 2011–13 . . . . . . .
2.7 Level of expenditure and proportion of population reached
by non-contributory conditional cash transfer programmes
in selected Latin American countries, latest available year . . . . . . . . . . .
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3.1 Non-health public social protection expenditure for people
of working age, and share of people of working age (15–64)
in the total population, 2010/11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Non-health public social protection expenditure for people
of working age, by national income, 2010/11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Overview of unemployment protection schemes anchored
in national legislation, by type of scheme and beneit, 2012/13 . . . . . . . .
3.4 Distribution of unemployment protection schemes worldwide
by type of scheme, 2012/13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Distribution of unemployment protection schemes worldwide
by extent of legal coverage of the labour force, latest available year . . . . .
3.6 Unemployment protection schemes: Extent of legal coverage,
regional estimates, latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7 Efective coverage of unemployment beneits: Unemployed who actually
receive cash beneits, regional estimates, 2007, 2009 and 2012/13 . . . . .
3.8 Efective coverage of unemployment beneits: Unemployed who actually
receive cash beneits, latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9 Efective coverage of unemployment beneits: Unemployed
who actually receive cash beneits, latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.10 Proportion of unemployed receiving unemployment beneits and relative
poverty rates for the unemployed, selected European countries, 2012 . . .
3.11 Unemployed receiving unemployment cash beneits, all ages
and youth, 2012/13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.12 Employment injury protection: Distribution by type
of programme, 2012/13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.13 Employment injury protection: Regional estimates of legal coverage
(total and women), latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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3.14 Employment injury protection: Legal and efective coverage,
latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.15 Employment injury protection: Replacement rates for permanent disability
3.16 Employment injury protection: Replacement rates for temporary disability
3.17 Overview of cash disability beneit programmes anchored in national
legislation, by type of programme and beneit, 2012/13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.18 Income support for persons with disabilities: Existence and type
of programmes, 2012/13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.19 Europe: Persons with disabilities in working age and recipients
of disability beneits, 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.20 Europe: Rates of poverty risk among those of working age (16–64)
by disability status, 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.21 Maternity cash beneit schemes anchored in national legislation:
Types of schemes, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.22 Legal (mandatory) coverage for maternity cash beneits: Women
in employment protected by law for loss of income during maternity . . . .
3.23 Efective coverage for maternity cash beneits: Women in employment
contributing to maternity cash beneits schemes or otherwise entitled
to such beneits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.24 Duration of paid maternity leave in national legislation, 2013 . . . . . . . . .
3.25 Level of maternity cash beneits as a proportion of previous
earnings, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.26 Antenatal care coverage by region, latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.27 Antenatal care coverage by social health protection coverage,
latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.28 Inequities in access to maternal health services by wealth quintile
and national income level, latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.29 Maternal mortality ratio (per 100,000 live births) and live births attended
by skilled health personnel, according to national income level, 2011 . . . .
4.1 Sources of income of people aged 65 and over, OECD countries . . . . . . . .
4.2 Correlation between greater public pension provision
and lower poverty levels, OECD countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Overview of old-age pension schemes anchored in national legislation,
by type of scheme, 2012/13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Non-health public social protection expenditure on pensions
and other beneits for older persons, and share of older population
(65 and above) in total population, 2010/11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 Non-health public social protection expenditure on pensions
and other beneits for older persons, 2010/11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 Long-term care expenditure as a proportion of GDP, 2010
and projections for 2060 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7 Old-age pensions: Extent of legal coverage, by region, latest available year
4.8 Efective pension coverage ratios, by region, latest available year . . . . . . . .
4.9 Old-age pension beneiciaries as a proportion of the population
above statutory pensionable age, latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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List of igures
4.10 Old-age pension beneiciaries as a proportion of the population
above statutory pensionable age, 2000 and 2010–12 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.11 Comparison of the proportion of older persons receiving a pension,
2000 and 2010–12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.12 Proportions of women and men in employment contributing
to a pension scheme, by area of residence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.13 Proportions of women and men above statutory pensionable age
receiving an old-age (or survivors’) pension, by area of residence . . . .
4.14 Pensioners’ declining relative standard of living as a result of price
indexation or no indexation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.15 Average replacement rates at retirement in public pension schemes
in 2010 and projected for 2060, selected European countries . . . . . .
4.16 Minimum replacement rates necessary to guarantee pension income
above the poverty threshold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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5.1 Health coverage by region: Proportion of population ailiated
to national health services, or social, private or micro-insurance
schemes, latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Global health coverage: Proportion of population ailiated
to national health services, social, private or micro-insurance
schemes, latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Legal health coverage and poverty, latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 he global deicit in efective access to health services, 2011/12,
by level of country income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5 Legal health coverage and out-of-pocket payments in selected
African countries, 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6 Schematic overview of health-care inancing mechanisms currently in use
5.7 Coverage mechanisms used by countries with legal health coverage rates
of 80 per cent of the population or over, 2014 or latest available year . . . .
5.8 Sources of health-care inancing, by region, 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.9 Share of OOP expenditure in total health expenditure,
by proportion of the population living on less than US$2 a day PPP, 2011
5.10 Number of health workers required to close global and regional gaps
in universal health coverage, ILO estimate, 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.11 Yearly change in health workers’ remuneration as proportion of total
health expenditure and GDP, by national income level, 2000–10 . . . . . .
6.1 Social protection in stimulus packages, 2008–09 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Number of countries contracting public expenditures (year on year),
2008–16, relative to GDP and in real terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 Excessive iscal contraction: Projected decline in total government
expenditure relative to GDP, and in real government expenditure
(2013–15 average over 2005–07 average) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Public social protection expenditure as a percentage of GDP,
real GDP and real social protection expenditure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5 Trends in government and public social protection expenditure
per capita, 2007–09 and 2009–11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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6.6 Expansion of social protection in middle- and low-income countries:
Selected examples of new and expanded programmes, 2000–13 . . . . . . . .
6.7 Support for the inancial sector, iscal stimulus packages and public
debt increases, selected HICs, 2008–10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.8 Increase in the proportion of the population at risk of poverty
in 18 European countries between 2008 and 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.9 Distribution of expenditure-based versus revenue-based iscal
consolidation plans in 30 OECD countries, 2009–15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.10 he social and economic risks of iscal consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.11 Trends in real public social protection expenditure, GDP, consumption
and unemployment, 2007–12/13: United States, Japan, France
and Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.12 Contributions of various components to the growth of nominal gross
disposable income of households, European Area 17 countries, 2000–12
6.13 Annual changes in disposable income, 2007–10, by income component,
selected OECD countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.14 Reduction in gross theoretical replacement rates of statutory pensions
for average wage workers retiring at age 65 ater 40 years of contributions,
2010–50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.15 Real public social protection expenditure, unemployment and real GDP:
Recent developments in the four EU countries under economic adjustment
programmes, 2008–13: Ireland, Greece, Portugal and Cyprus . . . . . . . . .
6.16 Poverty rates in OECD countries before and ater taxes and social
protection transfers, latest available year (around 2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.17 Increase in public social protection expenditure,
selected middle-income countries, 2000 to latest year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.18 Increase in public social protection expenditure,
selected low-income countries, 2000 to latest year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.19 Total government spending in selected countries, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.20 Illicit inancial lows (IFF) versus oicial development
assistance (ODA), 2000–09 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.21 Public social protection expenditure (percentage of GDP) and proportion
of the population in poverty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.22 Public social protection expenditure (percentage of GDP) and income
equality (Gini coeicient), latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.23 Schematic representation of some of the positive impacts of the extension
of social protection on inclusive growth (short term) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.24 Schematic representation of some of the positive impacts of the extension
of social protection on inclusive growth (longer term) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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List of tables
List of tables
4.1 Indexation methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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List of boxes
1.1 he ILO’s normative framework for the extension of social security . . . . .
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5.1 Global variations in sickness and sick leave beneits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Key aspects of performance associated with various health coverage and
inancing mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Numbers of medical personnel per 10,000 people, selected countries,
latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 Announced iscal consolidation policies and associated iscal savings,
selected countries, 2007–14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5 Announced cuts in public wages, selected European countries, 2010–13 .
5.6 Average annual increase in OOP, selected countries, 2007–11 . . . . . . . .
5.7 Key aspects of social protection loor policies aiming at achieving
universal coverage in health, based on Recommendation No. 202 . . . . . .
6.1 Main adjustment measures by region, 2010–13 . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Selected iscal consolidation measures recently adopted
or under discussion in high-income countries . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 Selected recent examples of the extension of social protection
in middle-income countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Selected recent examples of the extension of social protection
in low-income countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5 Fiscal space strategies: Country examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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3.1 International standards on unemployment protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Public employment programmes and their contribution to social protection
3.3 India’s Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee
Scheme (MGNREGS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 Keeping people in employment through part-time unemployment
beneits: he example of Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 From expansion to iscal consolidation: he examples of Slovenia and Spain
3.6 Measures facilitating return to work for parents with young children . . . .
3.7 International standards relevant for employment injury protection . . . . . .
3.8 he Rana Plaza disaster and its implications for social security
in cases of employment injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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International standards for child and family beneits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Child-sensitive social protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Social security systems and the prevention of child labour . . . . . . . . . . .
he universal child allowance in Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
he Child Support Grant in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Providing beneits for orphans and vulnerable children: he Livelihood
Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP) programme in Ghana . . . . . . .
2.7 he efects of iscal consolidation and adjustment measures
on child and family beneits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
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3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
xviii
Disability beneits for income protection: Relevant international standards
Income security for persons with disabilities: Illustrations from Europe . .
Recent developments: Country examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
How social protection can help persons with disabilities gain access
to employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
International standards relevant to maternity protection . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maternity protection: Collectively inanced schemes vs employer’s
liability provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maternity cash beneits: Some examples of recent expansion of coverage .
Measures to facilitate parents’ return to work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recent contraction measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1 International standards on old-age pensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 he crisis of the care economy: Risks associated with inattention
to long-term care needs in times of iscal consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Extension of social protection of older persons in China . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Trends in replacement rates and adequacy of pension payments . . . . . . .
4.5 Re-reforms and “un-privatizations” of pension systems in Latin America
and Central and Eastern Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
58
59
59
61
62
69
70
70
.
79
.
.
80
84
92
.
96
.
5.1 Approaching universal coverage in health: Anchored in ILO Conventions
and Recommendations and further international standards . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.1 From iscal stimulus to iscal consolidation –
Implications for social protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Using sovereign pension reserve funds to fund bailouts . . . . . . .
6.3 Iceland: A socially responsive recovery from the crisis . . . . . . . .
6.4 he role of social protection in the Brazilian model of domestic
demand-led growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5 Strengthening domestic demand-led growth in China through
increased wages and an expansion of social protection beneits .
6.6 Mozambique: Using a fuel subsidy to extend social protection .
6.7 Financing social protection from subsidy removal . . . . . . . . . . .
6.8 Taxing mineral and natural resource extraction to generate
iscal space for social protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.9 Ecuador: Using resources freed up by debt restructuring
for social protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
123
. . . . . . . . 131
. . . . . . . . 140
........
........
143
144
. . . . . . . . 147
. . . . . . . . 150
........
........
150
........
151
List of abbreviations
AAAQ
ADB
CCT
CIS
CRPD
DfID
ECLAC
EU
EU-SILC
FAO
GDP
HIC
ICESCR
IFF
IILS
ILO
IMF
ISSA
LEAP
MDG
MGNREGS
NDC
NGO
NHIS
OECD
OHCHR
availability, accessibility, acceptability and quality (criteria)
Asian Development Bank
conditional cash transfer
Commonwealth of Independent States
UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
Department for International Development (United Kingdom)
United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America
and the Caribbean
European Union
European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
gross domestic product
high-income country
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1966
illicit inancial lows
International Institute for Labour Studies
International Labour Oice/Organization
International Monetary Fund
International Social Security Association
Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty programme (Ghana)
Millennium Development Goal
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
(India)
notional deined contribution
non-governmental organization
National Health Insurance Scheme (Ghana)
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Oice of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
xix
World Social Protection Report 2014/15
OOP
PAYG
PEP
PPP
SSA
SWF
UDHR
UN
UNCTAD
UNDP
UNESCO
UNICEF
UNRISD
VAT
WHO
xx
out-of-pocket payments
pay-as-you-go
public employment programme
purchasing power parity
Social Security Administration of the United States
sovereign wealth fund
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948
United Nations
United Nat