Resistance against racism in Linton Kwesi Johnson's Inglan is a Bitch.

i

ABSTRACT

CHRISTIAN VICTOR. RESISTANCE AGAINST RACISM IN LINTON KWESI JOHNSONIS “INGLAN IS A BITCH”. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2015.

This thesis analyzes resistance against racism in a poem entitled “Inglan is a Bitch” written by Linton Kwesi Johnson. The poem belongs to the dub poetry genre, a genre born from the mixing of poetry and dub music. The poem tells us about the struggle of black people immigrants in England in dealing with racism. This poem is chosen because it gives a clear depiction of black people living in a racist society and the poem is unique because the language used is not Standard English but the variety of English which is Jamaican Creole.

There are two formulated problems to analyze the resistance against racism in the poem. The first is how the images in the poem are presented. The second is how the resistance against racism is reflected through the imagery in the poem.

The method applied in this undergraduate thesis is library research. There are two kinds of sources used in this study. The primary source is the poem itself, “Inglan is a Bitch”. The secondary sources are from the books of theory of literature, encyclopedia and internet. The approach used in analyzing the poem is postcolonial approach. By using this approach, the connection between racism, language and resistance can be known. Therefore, three theories are used to answer the formulated problems. Those theories are theory of imagery, theory of racism and theory of nation language.

The poem is about an immigrant who came to England in order to find a better job. The immigrant persona of the poem tells his experiences of working in different jobs from the first time he came to England until he is fifty five years old. Johnson uses Jamaican Creole as the language used by the persona in the poem in telling his experiences. From the analysis, I find that language, in this case Jamaican Creole, is used to create the image of a Caribbean immigrant. From the analysis of the racism in the poem, I find that negative stereotype about black people prevent them to find a proper job and have a better carrier. From the persona’s descriptions, I find that black people are only given menial jobs without a promotion to a better position in the work place. From the analysis of resistance against racism, I find that through the imageries in the poem Johnson shows the opposite truth of the negative stereotype about black people. He also celebrate the hybrid identity, and support the diasporic movement of black people to the metropolitan centre and also encourages the immigrants of the Caribbean to not to give up to the reality and fight for their rights.

ii

ABSTRAK

CHRISTIAN VICTOR. RESISTANCE AGAINST RACISM IN LINTON KWESI JOHNSONIS “INGLAN IS A BITCH”. Yogyakarta: Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2015.

Skripsi ini membahas tentang perlawanan terhadap rasisme dalam puisi berjudul “Inglan is a Bitch” yang ditulis oleh Linton Kwesi Johnson. Puisi ini termasuk dalam jenis dub poetry yang merupakan campuran dari puisi dan musik dub. Puisi ini menggambarkan perjuangan imigran kulit hitam dalam menghadapi rasisme di Inggris. Puisi ini dipilih karena puisi ini memberikan gambaran yang jelas tentang kehidupan orang kulit hitam di tengah masyarakat yang rasis. Puisi ini juga unik karena tidak menggunakan bahasa Inggris Standar melainkan variasi dari bahasa Inggris yaitu Kreole Jamaika.

Terdapat dua rumusan masalah untuk menganalisa perlawanan terhadap rasisme dalam puisi ini. Yang pertama adalah bagaimana gambaran tentang ras diwujudkan dalam puisi ini. Yang kedua adalah bagaimana melalui gambaran yang ada Linton Kwesi Johnson merepresentasikan perlawanan terhadap rasisme.

Metode yang digunakan dalam skripsi ini adalah metode kepustakaan. Ada dua jenis sumber yang dipakai. Sumber utama adalah puisi “Inglan is a Bitch” itu sendiri. Sumber yang kedua adalah buku-buku teori sastra, ensiklopedia dan internet. Pendekatan yang digunakan adalah pendekatan poskolonial. Dengan menggunakan pendekatan ini, hubungan antara rasisme, bahasa dan perlawanan dapat diketahui. Oleh sebab itu, ada tiga teori yang digunakan untuk menjawab masalah yang telah dirumuskan. Teori-teori tersebut adalah teori gambaran, teori rasisme, dan teori nation language.

Puisi “Inglan is a Bitch” adalah puisi tentang seorang imigran yang datang ke Inggris untuk mencari pekerjaan yang lebih layak. Persona imigran dalam puisi ini menceritakan pengalamannya melakukan berbagai macam pekerjaan sejak pertama kali datang ke Inggris hingga berusia limapuluh lima tahun. Johnson menggunakan Kreole Jamaika sebagai bahasa yang dipakai persona puisi ini dalam menceritakan pengalamannya. Dari analisis yang saya lakukan, saya menemukan bahwa bahasa, dalam hal ini Kreole Jamaika, digunakan oleh Johnson sebagai alat untuk menciptakan gambaran visual seorang imigran dari Karibia. Hasil yang saya temukan mengenai rasisme dalam puisi ini adalah bahwa adanya batasan bagi orang kulit hitam dalam usahanya memperoleh pekerjaan yang layak. Dari deskripsi pekerjaan persona puisi ini, saya menemukan bahwa orang kulit hitam hanya diberikan pekerjaan-pekerjaan kasar dan rendah tanpa adanya promosi ke jabatan yang lebih baik. Melalui analisis terhadap perlawanan terhadap rasisme, saya menemukan bahwa dari gambaran-gambaran yang ada dalam puisi ini dapat terlihat bahwa Johnson pun mendukung identitas hibrid dan pergerakan diasporik orang kulit hitam ke pusat metropolitan dan juga menyemangati para imigran untuk tidak menyerah dan berjuang demi hak mereka.

i

RESISTANCE AGAINST RACISM

IN LINTON KWESI JOHNSON’S “INGLAN IS A BITCH” AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

PresentedeasePartialeFulfillmenteofetheeRequirementse foretheeDegreeeifeSarjana Sastra

ineEnglisheLetterse e

e

Bye

CHRISTIAN VICTOR

StudenteNumber:e084214066e

ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS

FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2015

e

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vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

IewouldelikeetoegiveethankseandepraiseetoeGodeforeHiseunconditionalelovee ande blessinge ine mye life,e especiallye duringe thee timese ine mye studye ande ine thee completioneofethiseundergraduateethesis.e

e Ie woulde likee toe expresse mye sinceree gratitudee toe mye advisor,e Dr.e F.X.e Siswadi,eM.A.,eforetheeguidanceeandecorrectionseduringetheeprocesseofecompletinge theeundergraduateethesis,eandetoetheeco-advisoreDr.eG.eFajareSasmitaeAjieM.Hum.,e whoereadseanderevisesethiseundergraduateethesis.e

Iewouldelikeetoededicateethiseundergraduateethesisetoemyebelovedefamily.e Mye greateste gratitudee goese toe mye parents,e Bapake Jane F.M.e Hitipeuwe ande Ibue SylvianaeTauran.eIethankethemeforetheelove,eprayers,eandesupportsetheyegaveeme.eIe wouldealsoelikeetoethankeTanteeSannyeTauranewhoealwayseencouragesemeetoefinishe myestudy,eandetoemyegodparentseBapak JacqueseHitipeuweandeIbu MariaeTaurane foretheenever-endingeprayersetheyegaveetoeme.e

e IeamealsoegratefuletoemyedearestekontrakanefriendseAdoel,eHarioeandeKenane fore thee supportse ande helpse theye gavee me.e Ie woulde alsoe likee toe bee thankfule toe Yoceng,e Mase Muji,e Alweke ande Ririse fore thee inspirationse ande Bue Diahe fore thee adviceeandeencouragement.e

e Laste bute note least,e Ie thanke alle Englishe Letters’e lecturerse ande thee staffe ofe SanataeDharmaeUniversityeforetheeknowledgeeandeserviceeIegoteduringemyestudy,e andeallemyefriendseineEnglisheLetterseforetheegreatefriendshipetheyegaveeme.e

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

e

TITLE PAGE...e ie

APPROVAL PAGE...e iie

ACCEPTANCE PAGE...e iiie

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY...e ive

LEMBAR PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI...e ve

MOTTO PAGE...e vie

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSe...e viie

TABLE OF CONTENTS...e viiie

ABSTRACT...e ixe ABSTRAK...e xe e

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION...e 1e A.eeBackgroundeofetheeStudy...e 1e B.eeProblemeFormulation...e 4e C.eeObjectiveseofetheeStudy...e 4e D.eeDefinitioneofeTerms...e 5e e

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE...e 6e A.eeRevieweofeRelatedeStudies...e 6e B.eeRevieweofeRelatedeTheories...e 13e 1.eeTheoryeofeImagery...e 13e 2.eeTheoryeofeRacism...e 14e 3.eeTheoryeofeNationeLanguage...e 15e 4.eeTheoryeofeAmbivalence...e 16e C.eRevieweofeJamaicaneCreoleeUsedeinetheePoem...e 17e D.eRevieweoneSocio-PoliticaleBackground...e 21e E.eTheoreticaleFramework...e 23e e

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY...e 25e A.eeObjecteofetheeStudy...e 25e B.eeApproacheofetheeStudy...e 26e C.eeMethodeofetheeStudy...e 27e e

CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS...e 28e A.eeImageryeine“InglaneiseaeBitch”...e 28e B.eeResistanceeaseReflectedeine“InglaneiseaeBitch”...e 33e e

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION...e 39e e

BIBLIOGRAPHY...e 41e e

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ABSTRACT

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CHRISTIANe VICTOR.e RESISTANCE AGAINST RACISM IN LINTON

KWESI JOHNSON’S “INGLAN IS A BITCH”. Yogyakarta:e Departmente ofe

EnglisheLetters,eFacultyeofeLetters,eSanataeDharmaeUniversity,e2015.e e Thisethesiseanalyzeseresistanceeagainsteracismeineaepoemeentitlede“Inglaneise aeBitch” writtenebyeLintoneKwesieJohnson.eTheepoemebelongsetoetheedubepoetrye genre,eaegenreebornefrometheemixingeofepoetryeandedubemusic.eTheepoemetellseuse aboutetheestruggleeofeblackepeopleeimmigrantseineEnglandeinedealingewitheracism.e Thisepoemeisechosenebecauseeitegiveseaeclearedepictioneofeblackepeopleelivingeineae racistesocietyeandetheepoemeiseuniqueebecauseetheelanguageeusedeisenoteStandarde EnglishebutetheevarietyeofeEnglishewhicheiseJamaicaneCreole.e

Theree aree twoe formulatede problemse toe analyzee thee resistancee againste racismeinetheepoem.eTheefirsteisehowetheeimageseinetheepoemeareepresented.eThee secondeisehowetheeresistanceeagainsteracismeisereflectedethroughetheeimageryeinethee poem.e

Theemethodeappliedeinethiseundergraduateethesiseiselibraryeresearch.eTheree areetwoekindseofesourceseusedeinethisestudy.eTheeprimaryesourceeisetheepoemeitself,e “Inglane ise ae Bitch”.e Thee secondarye sourcese aree frome thee bookse ofe theorye ofe literature,eencyclopediaeandeinternet.eTheeapproacheusedeineanalyzingetheepoemeise postcoloniale approach.e Bye usinge thise approach,e thee connectione betweene racism,e languagee ande resistancee cane bee known.e Therefore,e threee theoriese aree usede toe answeretheeformulatedeproblems.eThoseetheorieseareetheoryeofeimagery,etheoryeofe racismeandetheoryeofenationelanguage.e

TheepoemeiseabouteaneimmigrantewhoecameetoeEnglandeineorderetoefindeae betterejob.eTheeimmigrantepersonaeofetheepoemetellsehiseexperienceseofeworkingeine differentejobsefrometheefirstetimeeheecameetoeEnglandeuntileheeisefiftyefiveeyearse old.e Johnsone usese Jamaicane Creolee ase thee languagee usede bye thee personae ine thee poemeinetellingehiseexperiences.eFromethee analysis,e Iefindethatelanguage,e inethise caseeJamaicaneCreole,eiseusedetoecreateetheeimageeofeaeCaribbeaneimmigrant.eFrome theeanalysiseofetheeracismeinetheepoem,eIefindethatenegativeestereotypeeabouteblacke peoplee prevente theme toe finde ae propere jobe ande havee ae bettere carrier.e Frome thee persona’sedescriptions,eIefindethateblackepeopleeareeonlyegivenemenialejobsewithoute aepromotionetoeaebetterepositioneinetheeworkeplace.eFrometheeanalysiseoferesistancee againsteracism,eIefindethatethroughetheeimagerieseinetheepoemeJohnsoneshowsethee oppositeetrutheofetheenegativeestereotypeeabouteblackepeople.eHeealsoecelebrateethee hybride identity,e ande supporte thee diasporice movemente ofe blacke peoplee toe thee metropolitanecentreeandealsoeencouragesetheeimmigrantseofetheeCaribbeanetoenotetoe giveeupetoetheerealityeandefighteforetheirerights.ee

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ABSTRAK

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CHRISTIANe VICTOR.e RESISTANCE AGAINST RACISM IN LINTON

KWESI JOHNSON’S “INGLAN IS A BITCH”. Yogyakarta:e Jurusane Sastrae

Inggris,eFakultaseSastra,eUniversitaseSanataeDharma,e2015.e e

e Skripsie inie membahase tentange perlawanane terhadape rasismee dalame puisie berjudule “Inglane ise ae Bitch”e yange ditulise olehe Lintone Kwesie Johnson.e Puisie inie termasukedalamejenisedubepoetryeyangemerupakanecampuranedariepuisiedanemusike dub.ePuisieiniemenggambarkaneperjuanganeimigranekulitehitamedalamemenghadapie rasismeedieInggris.ePuisieiniedipilihekarenaepuisieiniememberikanegambaraneyange jelasetentangekehidupaneorangekulitehitamedietengahemasyarakateyangerasis.ePuisie iniejugaeunikekarenaetidakemenggunakanebahasaeInggriseStandaremelainkanevariasie dariebahasaeInggriseyaitueKreoleeJamaika.e

e Terdapate duae rumusane masalahe untuke menganalisae perlawanane terhadape rasismee dalame puisie ini.e Yange pertamae adalahe bagaimanae gambarane tentange rase diwujudkane dalame puisie ini.e Yange keduae adalahe bagaimanae melaluie gambarane yangeadaeLintoneKwesieJohnsonemerepresentasikaneperlawananeterhadaperasisme.e e Metodeeyangedigunakanedalameskripsieinieadalahemetodeekepustakaan.eAdae duaejenisesumbereyangedipakai.eSumbereutamaeadalahepuisie“InglaneiseaeBitch”eitue sendiri.e Sumbere yange keduae adalahe buku-bukue teorie sastra,e ensiklopediae dane internet.e Pendekatane yange digunakane adalahe pendekatane poskolonial.e Dengane menggunakane pendekatane ini,e hubungane antarae rasisme,e bahasae dane perlawanane dapatediketahui.eOlehesebabeitu,eadaetigaeteorie yangedigunakaneuntukemenjawabe masalaheyangetelahedirumuskan.eTeori-teorietersebuteadalaheteoriegambaran,eteorie rasisme,edaneteorienation language.e

e Puisie“InglaneiseaeBitch”eadalahepuisietentangeseorangeimigraneyangedatange keeInggriseuntukemencariepekerjaaneyangelebihelayak.ePersonaeimigranedalamepuisie inie menceritakane pengalamannyae melakukane berbagaie macame pekerjaane sejake pertamae kalie datange kee Inggrise hinggae berusiae limapuluhe limae tahun.e Johnsone menggunakane Kreolee Jamaikae sebagaie bahasae yange dipakaie personae puisie inie dalame menceritakane pengalamannya.e Darie analisise yange sayae lakukan,e sayae menemukane bahwae bahasa,e dalame hale inie Kreolee Jamaika,e digunakane olehe Johnsone sebagaie alate untuke menciptakane gambarane visuale seorange imigrane darie Karibia.eHasileyangesayaetemukanemengenaierasismeedalamepuisieinieadalahebahwae adanyae batasane bagie orange kulite hitame dalame usahanyae memperolehe pekerjaane yangelayak.eDariedeskripsiepekerjaanepersonaepuisieini,esayaemenemukane bahwae orange kulite hitame hanyae diberikane pekerjaan-pekerjaane kasare dane rendahe tanpae adanyaepromosiekeejabataneyangelebihebaik.eMelaluieanalisiseterhadapeperlawanane terhadape rasisme,e sayae menemukane bahwae darie gambaran-gambarane yange adae dalamepuisieiniedapateterlihatebahwaeJohnsonepunemendukungeidentitasehibridedane pergerakane diasporike orange kulite hitame kee pusate metropolitane dane jugae menyemangatieparaeimigraneuntuketidakemenyerahedaneberjuangedemiehakemereka.

1

eCHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

e

A.Background of the Study

Forecenturiesemenehaveetriedetoetellehiseexperienceseinemanyedifferenteformse ofe expressione ande alsoe ine manye differente fields,e suche ase love,e hatee ande alsoe resistance.eMusic,epainting,esculptureeandeliteratureeareesomeeouteofemanyedevicese usedetoeexpressethoseeexperiences,eandesometimesetheseedeviceseareecombinedetoe createenewewayseofeexpression.eSinceebotheartseinvolvedesound,emusiceandepoetrye aree oftene combinede together.e Onee ofe thee resultse ofe thee uniquee combinatione ofe musiceandepoetryeisedubepoetry.ee

eInetermseofecombiningepoetryewithemusic,eJamaicaehaseitseownestyle.eDuringe thee 1970se reggaee musice wase gaininge musicale ground.e Reggaee musice ise distinguishedebyetheeincreaseeusedeofeJamaicaneCreoleeorepatwa,eaelanguageewhiche developede frome thee combinatione ofe English,e ande Weste Africane languagese (Durrleman-Tame,e2008:e1).eReggae,eduringeitsedevelopment,ebecameemediumeofe politicaleprotesteanderesistance.eSomeeartistsestartedetoeaddeinstrumentalesidesetoe theirerecords,ealsoeknowneasetheedubeside,eandedeejayse(DJ)estartedetalkingeoverethee beatseinetheetraditioneofetheeAfricanegriotse(Lolley,e2002).eThisekindeofetalkingebye deejayse wase referrede toe ase toasting.e Ite wase note juste ine music,e poetrye wase alsoe exploredebyeJamaicaneartists.ePoetsetriedetoeexploreeaneoraleaestheticeforewrittene poetry.eSinceepoetryeiseaneexplorationeofepossibilitieseinelanguage,eJamaicanepoetse

usee theire indigenouse language,e patwa,e ase ane elemente of,e ore vehiclee for,e poetry.e Reggaeeandepoetryethenewereecombinedetoecreateeaenewetypeeofepoetryeknownease “dubepoetry”e(Arnold,e2001:e97).ee

Dube poetrye ise usuallye takene toe refere toe ae particulare typee ofe “performancee poetry”,eaebrandeofeoralepoetryeperformedetoetheeaccompanimenteofereggaeemusic.e Dubepoetryeprovideseaeuniqueeexampleeinewhichethereeisemixingeanderemixingeofe spokene ande writtene forms.e Thee terme dube poetrye itselfe ise thoughte toe havee beene popularizedebyetheeJamaicanepoeteOkueOnuoraetoedescribeeaeformeofeoraleartethate hadebeenedevelopingeineJamaicaesinceetheeearlye1970se(Arnold,e2001:e97).eReggaee ande dube poetrye sharee thee samee characteristic,e bothe aree thee mediae ofe resistancee againsteBabylon,eaetermethateusedebye Rastafarianemovementewhicheappliedetoeae varietyeofeentitiesethateRastafarianseconsidereoppressive.eMovingetoereggaeebeat,e andeofteneperformed,eratherethaneread,etoeliveemusicalebacking,edubepoetryetracese itse lineagee toe thee orale inventivenesse ofe thee street,e thee tenemente yard,e ande “dreadtalk”,e thee Rastafariane waye ofe speakinge stylee (Arnold,e 2001:e 86-88).e A.e Jamese Arnolde statede thate “thee dube poetse adaptede thee rhythms,e terminologye ande techniqueseofereggaeeine theireownepoeticetechniques”e(2001:e97).e DubePoetrye ise interestinge becausee ite cane bee studiede ine anye context,e whethere ite ise history,e literature,emusic,eperformance,eorerebellion.eItehasegivenepoetryeaenewepopularitye andehaseinfluencedemoreemainstreameliteraryeproducts.e

Onee ofe thee prominente dube poetse duringe thise timee ise UK-basede dube poete LintoneKwesieJohnsone(alsoeknowneaseLKJ).eHeewaseborneone24eAuguste1952eine Chapelton,eJamaica,eandewhenehiseparentsespliteupeLKJelateremovedetoeEnglandeine

1963e toe bee withe hise mothere (Lolley,e 2002).e Ine thise studye Ie trye toe sharee thee significanceeofeLintoneKwesieJohnson’sedubepoetry.eTheetopiceofethisethesiseisethee ideaeoferesistanceeineJohnson’sepoemeentitlede“InglaneiseaeBitch”.eIehaveechosene LintoneKwesieJohnson’sepoemebecauseeheeiseconsideredeaseaeprominentedubepoete andeheeisenotedeforehiseforcefulevocalizationeofeaehighlyepoliticizedestandepointeine relationetoeissueseaffectingetheeblackecommunityeineLondon,easewelleaseforehiselinkse withereggaeemusiceandehisestrikingeperformativeestyle.ee

Beingeaedubepoetewitheoralerendition,emosteofeLKJ’seworkseareeinetheeformeofe records.eNumberseoferecordealbumseandebookseofehiseselectedepoemsehaveebeene released.e Withe thee publicatione ofe hise bookeMi Revalueshanary Fren:e Selectede Poemseine2002,eLKJebecameetheesecondelivingepoet,eandetheeonlyeBlackepoet,etoebee publishedeinetheePenguineModerneClassiceseriese(Pryce,e2009).e

“Inglane ise ae Bitch”e ise ae poeme thate showse howe thee immigrante frome thee CaribbeanehadetoedealewitheracismeineEngland,eespeciallyeduringe1950setoeearlye 1980s.eDuringethoseetimes,eaeloteofeimmigrantsefrometheeCaribbean,eandealsoeAsia,e cameetoeEnglandehopingetoefindeaejobeforeaebettereliving.eHowever,etheyewereeonlye givene thee meniale jobse thate thee whitee peoplee dide note wante toe doe evene ife thee immigrantse fite thee requiremente fore ae steadye ande propere job.e Thee poeme ise thee reflectione ofe Johnson’se concerne towardse thee immigrante ande blacke peoplee ine thee UnitedeKingdomeiseinterestingetoebeeanalyzededeeper.eJohnson’sepoemeactseaseae voiceeforetheeminorities.eHisepoemeemphasizesehowetheeblackepeopleeineEnglande mustestrifeetoesurviveelivingeinetheeracistesociety.eInehisearticlee“Riots,eRhymeseande Reasons”,eLKJesaidethatehisemotivationetoewriteepoetrye“...sprangefromeaeviscerale

needetoecreativelyearticulateetheeexperienceseofetheeblackeyoutheofemyegeneration,e comingeofeageeineaeracistesociety”e(Johnson,e2012).e

Thiseresearchefocuseseonetheeattemptetoeanalyzeehoweracismeisepresentedeine LintoneKwesieJohnson’sepoeme“InglaneiseaeBitch”eandehowetheepoetedealsewithethee issue.eIneorderetoeachieveetheegoaleofethisestudy,eIeanalyzeetheeimageryeusedebyethee poetetoefindeoutehowetheeresistanceeagainsteracismeisereflectedeinetheepoem.e

e

B.Problem Formulatione

Ine ordere toe reveale thee resistancee againste racisme ine “Inglane ise ae Bitch”,e Ie formulateetwoeproblemsetoebeeanswered:e

1.e Howeareetheeimagesepresentedeinetheepoem?ee

2.e Howeisetheeresistanceeagainsteracismereflectedethroughetheeimageryeinethee poem?e

e

C. Objectives of the Study

Basede one thee probleme formulatione mentionede above,e theree aree twoe objectiveseofetheestudy.eTheefirsteoneeisetoefindeoutehowetheeimageseareepresentede inetheepoem.eTheesecondeoneeisetoediscoverehoweresistanceereflectedethroughethee imageries.ee

D. Definition of Terms

Toeavoidemisunderstanding,esomeetermseusedeinethiseresearcheareenecessarye toebeeclarified.eTheeterminologiesewillebeeasefollow:e

1. Resistance

Theenouneresistanceemeansedislikeeofeoreoppositionetoeaeplan,eaneidea,eetc.;e refusaletoeobey.eAnotheremeaningeisetheeacteofeusingeforceetoeopposeesomebodyeore somethinge (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary,e 2005:e 1292).e Thee firste definitionefitewithetheefunctioneoferesistanceewhicheAshcroftedescribedeaseaeconcepte identifyinge anye kinde ofe struggle,e regardlesse ofe modese ore aimse (Ashcroft,e 2001:e 20).eInethiseresearch,eIeuseetheefirstedefinitioneoferesistance.e

e

2. Racism

Ine hise essaye “Racee ande Racism”,e Tzvetane Todorove statede thate thee worde “racism”ereferetoetwoedifferentethings.eTheefirsteiseracismecouldebeedesignatedetoe behavior,eaemanifestationeofehatredeorecontemptetowardseindividualsewithedifferente physicalecharacteristicsefromeoureown;eitealsoecouldebeedesignatedetoeideology,eae doctrineeconcerningehumaneracee(Back,e2001:e64).eTheefirstedesignationeoferacisme iseusedetoeansweretheeproblemeformulationeofethiseresearch.e

6

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

e

Thisechaptereisedividedeintoethreeeparts.eTheefirsteparteisetheerevieweoferelatede studieseoneLintoneKwesieJohnsonewhichewereetakenefromeessayseaboutehim.eThee seconde parte ise thee reviewe ofe relatede theories,e whiche includee theorye one literarye elements,e theorye ofe racism,e somee socio-politicale background,e ande somee characteristicse ofe Jamaicane Creole.e Thee thirde parte ofe thise chaptere ise theoreticale framework,ewhicheexplainsetheeapproacheusedeinethisestudy.e

e

A. Review of Related Studies

LintoneKwesieJohnsoneiseknowneforehiseresistanceepoems.eManyeessayseande theseseofehisepoemseareewrittenebyecriticseandestudentsewhoeareeinterestedeinedube poetry.eHowever,eaccessetoethoseeessayseandetheseseiselimited.eInethiseparteIegiveeae revieweofetheeessayseIecanegetefrometheeinternet.eTheefirsteiseoneeise“LintoneKwesie Johnson’sepoetryeaseaecollectiveesemantics:eAxeleHonneth’setheoryeoferecognitione ande thee poetice intellectual”e bye Christophe Novake ande thee seconde onee ise “Word,e Sounde&ePower:eTheeDubePoetryeofeLintoneKwesieJohnsoneandeJohneAgard”ebye GustavoeJ.eAdrieleSoléefromeUniversitatedeeBarcelona.e

Ine hise essay,e “Lintone Kwesie Johnson’se poetrye ase ae collectivee semantics:e Axele Honneth’se theorye ofe recognitione ande thee poetice intellectual”,e Christophe

Novake usede ae methode ofe textuale analysise aimede toe finde thee intermediarye spacee betweene ane author’se worke ande itse effectse withine thee contexte ofe sociale struggles.e Novak’secentralehypothesiseis:e

Johnson—throughe hise workse ande performances—takese upe thee sociale functione ase ae certaine kinde ofe Gramsciane intellectuale whilee hise poetrye constitutese ae collectivee semanticse fore thee strugglee ofe non-whitee Britishe citizenseandetheireoffspringewithineBritishesociety.eByetheseemeans,eJohnsone definesethoseeneglectedebyetheehegemonice’white’eBritishesocietyeandespeakse onetheirebehalfe(Novak,e2009:e2).e

Hee latere dividede hise centrale argumente intoe threee parts.e Thee firste onee ise Lintone Kwesie Johnsone functionse ase intellectuale fore non-whitee ande moldse theme intoe ae groupeofeindividualsesubjectedetoemoraleinjurieselikeedegradationeandeneglect.eThee seconde onee ise LKJ’se poetrye enforcese ae commonlye sharede understandinge ofe thee underlyingepatternseandesocietalemechanismseresponsibleeforeindividualeviolations.e This,easeaeconsequence,ecanebeereadeaseaecollectiveesemantics.eTheethirdeoneeisethee logicale result,e LKJe articulatese strategiese toe overcomee thee obstaclese non-whitee Britonse havee toe facee ande proclaimse sociale organizatione ande resistancee (Novak,e 2009:e6).e

Ine thee firste levele whene discussinge hise firste point,e Novake tooke ane examplee frome thee refraine ofe LKJ’se poeme “Forcese ofe Victri”e wheree LKJe usese “we”e predominantlye toe refere toe Blacke Britons.e Bye quotinge Ashleye Dawson,e Novake statedethatethisepoeme“servesebotheaseaeremembranceeofeblackepeople’sehistoricale resistanceetoetheeracistestateeandeaseaneactiveeperformanceeofeaecounterehegemonice Blackeaesthetic”e(Novak,e2009:e6).eOnetheesecondelevel,eheearguedethateJohnsone pute forwarde ae broade understandinge ofe thee victimse ofe racism.e Here,e Novake usede

LKJ’se poeme “Newe Crasse Massakah”e ase ane examplee wheree thee worde “we”e ine Johnson’seconcepterefersetoeBlackeBritishepeopleeandestandeineslightecontrastetoethee Asians.eNonetheless,eaccordingetoeNovak,eLKJementionsethatetheeAsiansealsoehavee similareexperience.e

Ine hise seconde pointe Novake assumede thate Johnson’se workse contributee toe ae sharedeunderstandingeeofeetheeeunderlyingeemechanismseeofeepoliticaleandeesocialee neglecte e amonge e non-whitee Britons.e e Thise e interpretatione e ofe e individualee experienceseeaseewide-spreadeesocietaleepatterns,eesucheeaseracism,eeiseomnipresent.e NovaketookeexampleefromeLKJ’sepoeme“NeweCrasseMassakah”eandestatedethatethee interpretationeofetheeattackeasebeingecausedebyeracistemotivationeremainseimplicite butehighlyevisible.eAnothereexampleeisetakenefrometheepoeme“DreadeInnaeInglan”,e whereeJohnsonecallsetheepoliticianseenduringeoreevenepromotingeracismeanderaciste violenceebyetheirerealenames.eBesidesetheeidentificationeofetheeenemy–theestate,eitse institutions,e discriminatinge lawse ande provisions–thee thirde aspect,e thee positivee articulatione ofe ae strategye toe addresse thee obstacle,e comese through.e Thee positivee emphasisetoeholdetheemarchenoteonlyeforemereeamusement,ebuteaseaesymboliceacteofe resistanceeagainstetheestateecanebee reade aseaestrategice calleforeciviledisobediencee andeactiveeresistancee(Novak,e2009:e8).e

Accordingetoehisethirdepoint,eNovakearguedethateaepossibleecounter-strategye oresolutionetoetheesocietalemechanismseandeproblems,ewhicheareeconsideredetoebee thee sourcese ofe neglecte ande degradation,e ise verye likelye toe bee intertwinede withe ae collectivee semantics.e Hee continuede thate thise laste aspect,e althoughe note beinge ae formativeeelementeofeaecollectiveesemanticseinetheenarrowesense,eiseresponsibleefore

theeveryeformeaesocialestruggleetakes.eThiseisetheepointeatewhicheaesocialestrugglee mayeeithereleadetoemoreeandemoreeviolence,eehatredeeandeeprejudiceseeoreebecomesee aeemovementeemodifyingeetheeemoraleenorms,efoundationseandetheeself-perceptione ofeae(national)esocietye(Novak,e2009:e9).e

Frome thee previouse analysis,e Novake statede thate LKJe putse forwarde variouse strategieserangingefromecounter-violenceetoeciviledisobedience.eTherefore,eiteseemse clearethateJohnson’sepoliticalepoetryegoesebeyondesimplyecallingetheeevilsethatenon-whiteeBritonsehaveetoefaceebyename,ebuteheeactivelyeputseforwardestrategieseande solutionse toe overcomee thosee experiencese ofe degradatione ande neglecte (Novak,e 2009:10).eNovaketheneconcludedethat:e(1)eLKJ’sepoemseincludeeandehomogenizee differentegroupsebyementioningedifferentegroupse(Blacks,eAsians,eAfricans,eWeste Indians,ePakistani),ewhicheareeequallyeaffectedebyetheeracismeofetheeBritishesociety.e (2)eLKJeputseforwardeaecertaineinterpretationeofespecificeevents,ehighlightingethee underlyinge societale patterne (racism)e ande politicale mechanismse responsiblee fore individualeexperienceseofeneglecteandedegradation.e(3)eJohnsoneproposesepossiblee solutionseandestrategiesetoeovercomeetheseenegativeeexperiencese(violenteandenon-violente resistance,e protests,e counter-violence).e Bye thesee meanse hee shapede thee knowledgeeabouteetheeesocialeestruggleeeofeenon-whiteeeBritonseeandeehelpedeeinee creatingeeaeecollectiveeefronteeagainsteracismeandeformseofepoliticaleneglecte(Novak,e 2009:e10-11).e

TheenextestudyeisefromeGustavoeJ.eAdrieleSoleeofeUniversitatedeeBarcelonae whoewriteseaeresearchepapereaboutedubepoetryeandeLintoneKwesieJohnson.eInehise

paper,eGustavoeanalyzeseword,esoundeandepowereinedubepoetryeandethenecomparese theepoeteLintoneKwesieJohnsonewitheanotheredubepoeteJohneAgard.ee

GustavoebeginsehiseanalysisebyegivingedefinitioneofedubepoetryeaseChristiane Habekoste definede it:e “ae significante literarye forme withe itse rootse ine politicale ande reggaeecultureeofeJamaica...”e(2008:e1).eGustavoealsoeconfirmsethatedubepoetryeise onee ofe thee moste importante militante voicese ofe Blacke peoplee ande hase itse rootse ine Africaneoraletraditioneofecombiningespokenewordseandetheesoundseofedrums.eIteise usede ase ae politicale meanse ofe denunciatione ande assertione ofe identity.e Therefore,e Gustavoe arguese thate dube poetrye ise foundede one threee concepts,e namely:e word,e sound,eandepower.e

Ine hise analysise ofe word,e Gustavoe statede thate spokene worde functionede ase ae vehicleetoetransmitepoliticalethemes.eFurthermore,eheearguedethatedubepoetryeusese language,einethisecaseepatois,etoeexpresseideaseabouteracism,eequality,ejusticeeande oppressionesoeasetoeavoidethateofeestablishment.e

TheenexteconceptethateGustavoeanalyzedeisesoundeofedubepoetry.eHeestatede thatedubepoetryeiseuniqueebecauseetheeuseseofemusicebyetheepoetsewhenetheyegivee liveeperformancee(2008:e2).eHeementionedethatedubepoetryeoriginatesefromereggaee music.eIteisewhenediscejockeyse(DJ)ebeganetoeuseetheeB-side,econtainingethee‘dub’e ore‘instrumentaleversion’,eofeaesongerecordeasetheebaseeforetheireannouncementeande tellinge ofe jokes.e Latere on,e thee announcemente wase extendede intoe longere storiese aboutetheeDJ’sedailyelife,eincludingetopicsesucheaselamentationseandesocialeprotest.e

Gustavoe alsoe claimede thate ase Lintone Kwesie Johnson’se albume “Dreade Beate an’e Blood”ewasereleasedeine1978ethenedubepoetryewaseborn.e

Nexte one Gustavo’se analysise ise thee concepte ofe power.e Hee claimede thate thee powereofedubepoetryecaneonlyebeetransmittedethroughetheevoice.eThus,etheemoste powerfule interpretatione ofe dube poetrye comese ine thee forme ofe livee performancee (2008:e3).eGustavoereasonedethatethisecanehappenebecauseetheepoeteisefaceetoefacee withehiseaudience.eDubepoetryeisedifferentefromeclassicalepoetry,etheepoetedoesenote readehisepoemebuteperformsetheepoem,edrawingetheerealepowerefromehisevoice.eThee powereofedubepoetryeisealsoereflectedeonetheeeffectiveewayseinewhicheitetransmitse theepoliticaleaimseofetheepoet.e

Gustavoe thene continuede hise papere comparinge Lintone Kwesie Johnsone ande Johne Agarde startede withe theire background.e Hee comparede thee birthe placee ande LintoneKwesieJohnsonewaseborneineJamaicaeine1952eandemovedetoeLondonewhene hee wase 11e yearse old.e Ine hise earlye youth,e hee joinede thee Blacke Pantherse toe fighte againstepoliceebrutalityeanderacism.eLater,eheejoinededifferenteactivistecampaignse committede toe improvinge ande drawinge attentione toe thee Blacke Britishe experiencee (Gustavo,e2008:e3).eOnetheeotherehand,eJohneAgardewaseborneineGuyanaeine1949e whene thee countrye wase stille ae Britishe Colony.e Agarde wase ae journaliste ande ae newspaperesub-editoreuntileheemovedetoeEnglandeine1977,ewhereeheeworkedeaseae lecturere fore thee Commonwealthe Institute.e Agarde begane toe publishe poetrye ande children’se bookse ine 1983e whene hee alsoe becamee Poete ine Residencee ate thee BBCe (Gustavo,e2008:e3).e

Inehiseanalysis,eGustavoediscoveredethateevenethoughebothepoetseusedepatwa,e JohneAgardeiselesseconsistentewheneitecomesetoewriting,easeheespellsehiselyricsewithe Standarde Englishe whene hee addressese children,e whilee LKJe constantlye reflectse speecheinehisepoem.eInetermeofetheme,eGustavoementionedethateLKJ’sekeyeconcepte ise‘dread’,eaetermeLKJeuseetoedescribeetheematerialeconditionseofeblackeBritain,eore ‘Inglan’,e ane existencee suppressede ore marginalizede ine thee consciousnesse ofe England,eorewhiteeauthority.eJohneAgard,eaccordingetoeGustavo,ehasemoreesubtlee style,efulleofeimageryeandesymbolism,eevenethoughehisethemeseareenotetooedifferente fromeJohnson’s.e

Gustavoe concludede hise analysise bye statinge “dube poetrye continuese toe bee ae powerfuletooletoeexpresseideologyeandetoedenounceesocialeinjustice,ealthougheitehase adaptedetoetheetimeseandebroadenedeitsehorizons”e(Gustavo,e2008:e5).eHeeclaimede thate duee thee powerfule performancee bye Johnsone ande Agard,e ande thee issuese theye explored,edubepoetsehaveesucceededeinereachingeaewideeaudienceeandetheyehavee becomeepopularewithemanyegenerationseandepublicseofedifferenteraces.eAccordinge toehim,eLintoneKwesieJohnsoneandeJohneAgardeareeauthenticetheetroubadourseofe theemoderneera.e

Whate makese thise researche differente frome bothe relatede studiese reviewede aboveeisetheescopeeofetheeanalysis.eThiseresearcheisemyeattempteineanalyzingethee useeofelanguageetoecreateeimageryeaseaetooleoferesistanceebyeLintoneKwesieJohnsone frome thee postcoloniale perspectivee ande findinge thee poete worlde viewe ore reactione towarderacism.e

B. Review of Related Theories

Toeansweretheeproblemeformulationsestatedeinetheefirstechaptereofethisestudy,e someetheoriesewereeused.eTheetheorieseusedeareeasefollows:e

1. Theory of Imagery

Abramse ine hise bookeA Glossary to Literary Terms statede thate ine moderne criticismeimageryeiseoneeofetheemostecommoneandetheemostevariableeinemeaning.e Itse applicationehaseaewideerangeeinepoetry;e fromethee“mentalepicture”e which,ease sometimeseclaimedeareeexperiencedebyetheereadereofeaepoem,etoetheetotalityeofethee componentsewhichemakeeupeaepoeme(1999:e121).ee

AseAbramsepointedeout,ethereeareethreeepointsetoebeeconsideredeineorderetoe findeimagerieseineaepoem:e

1.e“Imagery”e(thateis,e“images”etakenecollectively)eiseusedetoesignifyeallethee objectseandequalitieseofesenseeperceptionereferredetoeineaepoemeoreothere worke ofe literature,e whethere bye literale description,e bye allusion,e ore bye similese ore metaphors.e “Imagery”e ine thise usagee includese visuale sensee qualities,e auditorye (hear),e tactilee (touch),e thermale (heate ande cold),e olfactorye (smell),e gustatorye (taste),e ande kinesthetice (sensatione ofe movement).e

2.e Moree narrowly,e imagerye ise usede toe signifye onlye descriptione ofe visiblee objectse ande scenes,e especiallye ife thee descriptione ise vivide ande particularized.e

3.e Imagery,e commonlye ine recente usage,e signifiese figurative language,e especiallye thee vehicles (thee secondarye reference)e ofe metaphorse ande similese(1999:e121).e

e

2. Theory of Racism

Encyclopedia of Race and Racism Vol. 3 mentionede thate racisme hase beene definedeinemanyedifferenteways.eItecontinuesethatethereeareefourefeatureseofethesee definitionseareemostesignificant.ee

First,e racisme ise ae forme ofe dominancee ine whiche onee raciale groupe enjoyse controleoveretheeoutcomeseofeanothereracialegroup.eSecond,etheebeliefsethatesustaine anderationalizeegroupedominanceepresumeetheesuperiorityeofetheein-groupeandethee inferioritye ofe thee out-group.e Third,e racisme ise ae multilevele phenomenone thate ise expressede bye individualse (microe level),e ise criticallye influencede bye institutionse (mesoelevel),eandedeeplyeembeddedeinetheeentireeculturee(macroelevel).eInfluencese amonge thee levelse aree bidirectionale ande evolvee ande changee overe time.e Fourth,e racisme contributese directlye ande indirectlye toe persistente raciale inequalitye (Encyclopedia of Race and Racism Vol. 3,e2008:e74).e

Individuale level,e ore overte racism,e ise similare toe raciale prejudice.e Ate thee individuale level,e negativee attitudes,e feelings,e ore behaviorse aree directede ate thee targetseoferacism.ePrejudiceeiseusuallyelinkedetoenegativeestereotypeseheldeabouteane out-groupeandeappliedetoebehavioredirectedeatememberseofethategroup,eregardlesseofe

whethereorenotetheyefitetheegroupestereotype.eAseiteoperateseonepersonalelevel,eoverte racismecaneeasilyebeerecognized.e

Institutionaleracism,eonetheeotherehand,eiseprettyemuchesubtle.eIteworkseinsidee theesystem,erunebyeindividualsewitheracismetendencies,eandeiteisehardetoebeeclearlye pointede out.e Stokelye Carmichaele (later,e Kwamee Ture)e ande Charlese V.e Hamiltone introducedetheeconcepteofeinstitutionaleracismeinetheirebookeBlackePowere(1967).e Institutional-leveleracismeis,e“theeprocessebyewhicheracialeoppressioneiseimposede one subordinatee raciale groupse bye dominante raciale groupse throughe institutionale channels”e(Encyclopedia of Race and Racism Vol. 2,e2008:e180).e

e

3. Theory of Nation Language

Ine hise essaye Natione Language,e Edwarde K.e Brathwaitee clearlye declarese hise stancee againste thee usee ofe thee worde ‘dialect’e ase ae terme referse toe thee Englishe variatione usede bye Caribbeane people.e Thee reasone ise thate “thee worde ‘dialect’e hase beene bandiede aboute fore ae longe time,e ande ite carriese verye pejorativee overtones”e (1995:e 311).e Instead,e hee offerse ande choosese thee terme ‘natione language’.e Natione languageeiseBrathwaite’setermeforeculturallyespecificeformeofeCaribbeaneEnglish.e

Accordinge toe Brathwaite,e natione languagee maye havee Englishe lexicale features,ebuteiteisestronglyeinfluencedebyetheeAfricaneaspecteofeCaribbeaneheritagee (1995:e311).eHeefurtheredescribesenationelanguageeaseaenotetheestandard,eimported,e educatede Englishe bute onee thate bearse thee experiencee ofe Caribbeane peoplee (1995:e 311).e

Theree aree twoe characteristicse ofe natione language.e First,e natione languagee emphasizese thee orality.e Hence,e eache noisee ine natione languagee ise parte ofe thee meaning.eSecond,enationelanguageeiseaeparteofetotaleexpression.eItedemandsetheenote onlye thee speaker/performere bute alsoe thee audiencee toe completee thee communitye (1995:e311-312).ee

e

4. Theory of Ambivalence

InetheirebookeKey Concepts in Post-Colonial Studies,eAshcroft,eGriffithseande Tiffine mentionede thate thee terme ambivalencee wase adaptede bye Homie Bhabha,e “ite describese thee complexe mixe ofe attractione ande repulsione thate characterizese thee relationshipebetweene colonizerseandecolonized”e(1998:e12).eTheye continuedethate ambivalencee suggeste thate theree aree complexe relatione ande resistancee existe ine ane unsteadyerealtionewithinetheecolonialesubjectse(1998:e12).e

AccordingetoeBhabhaethereeisenoesimpleerelationshipebetweenecolonizereande colonized.e Thee coloniale discoursee wantse toe producee compliante subjectse whoe reproduceeitsehabitseandevalues,ewhichetheetermeofethiseconcepteise‘mimic’e(1998:e 13).eHowever,etheeresulteiseambivalentesubjectsewhichetheemimicryeisenoteveryefare frome mockery.e Ambivalencee describese thise relationshipe betweene mimicrye ande mockeryeandetheeeffecteisetoeproduceeaedisturbanceeofetheeauthorityeofetheecoloniale discoursee(1998:13).e

C. Review of Jamaican Creole Used in the Poem

MosteofeLKJ’sepoemseareeperformedeJamaicaneCreole,eorepatwa,eandewrittene usingeJamaicaneCreoleeorthography.eHence,eiteiseimportantetoeknowehoweiteworkse ine ordere toe understande LKJ’se poems.e Ine Jamaica,e colonialisme broughte differente racese intoe contacte withe onee another.e Suche varietiese ofe language-communitiese resultedeinetheedevelopmenteofepidgin.ePidginethenedevelopedeintoecreoleewhenethee descendante ofe thee slavese ande indenturede laborerse livee ande worke togethere overe generations.eCreoleewaseusedeineJamaicaelongebeforeeitewaseusedeinepoetry.eInehise bookePostcolonial Poetry in English,e Rajeeve S.e Patkee quotede Louisee Bennette whenesheerecollects,e“WheneIewaseaechild,eeachedayecontainsepoemeofefolkesongs,e folke stories,e streete cries,e legends,e proverbs,e riddles”e (2006:e 96).e Yet,e thee orale traditionselackederespectabilityeduringetheecolonialeera.eBenneterecollects,e“Theye hadenoesocialestatuse.e.e.eInefact,etheyewereetoebeedeploredeandedespisedeasecominge frome thee offspringe ofe slavese whoe weree illiterate,e uncultured,e ande downrighte stupid”e(2006:e96).e

Patwaehasetheeuniqueepronunciationeneededetoecreateetheedistinctiveeaesthetice soundseofedubepoetry.eJohnson’sepoem,eandedubepoetryeinegeneral,eareeoralepoetry,e poeme whiche intendede toe bee performede ine ae communitye ore publice spaces,e note merelyetoebeereadeindividually.eThiseisesimilarewitheJamaicaneCreoleethateheeusede inehisepoem.eSinceeJamaicaneCreoleehasetraditionallyebeene confinedetoeoraleuse,e theree ise noe generallye acceptede spellinge system.e Therefore,e thee spellinge usede ise largelyeadehoc.eThus,eoneewordemightebeewritteneinemoreethaneoneeway.e

IneorderetoeunderstandeJohnson’sepoemeoneeneedetoeunderstandehowespellinge inepatwaeworks.eToereadewrittenepatwa,eoneeneedsetoeconsiderethatetheespellingse are:e

1.e Identicale withe thee spellinge ofe itse Englishe cognate,e thoughe thee Creolee pronunciationeisequiteedifferent.eForeexample,etheeworde‘this’eiseveryelikelye toebeepronouncedease‘dis’.e

2.e RepresenteaneattemptetoeproduceetheeCreoleepronunciation,eforeexamplee‘di’e fore‘the’,e‘mi’efore‘me’,e‘lickle’eore‘likkl’efore‘little’,e‘waak’efore‘walk’eande soeon.e

3.e Combinee featurese ofe Creolee pronunciatione withe thee usuale spellinge ofe thee StandardeEnglishe(SE)ecognate,easeine‘de’efore‘the’,e‘bwoy’efore‘boy’,e‘cyar’e fore‘car’,e‘dyamn’e‘damn’,e‘eediot’efore‘idiot’,e‘perfec’e‘perfect’.e

4.e Suggeste thate thee writere ise patterninge ite one thate ofe ane unrelatede Standarde Englishewordewhicheisepronouncedesimilarly,ee.g.e‘ole’e‘old’e(cf.eSEehole),e ‘sum’ee‘some’e(cf.eSEesum)e

Anotherethingewortheconsideringeinepatwaeisetheegrammarewhichesometimese confusinge fore peoplee whoe nevere hade contacte withe thee Jamaicane Creolee before.e Belowe ise somee parte ofe thee Jamaicane Creolee grammare usede ine LKJ’se poeme ine particular.eTheefirsteoneeisepersonalepronoun:e

e

e e e Subjecte Objecte Possessivee

Singulare

Firstepersone mi / a mi Mi Secondepersone yu yu Yu ThirdePersone (h)im (h)im (h)im

Plurale

Firstepersone wi wi Wi Secondepersone unu yu Yu Thirdepersone dem dem Dem e

TheeexamplesefromeLKJ’sepoemseare:e

•e “W’enemiejus’ecomeetoeLandanetoun”.e‘WheneIejustecameetoeLondonetown’e (Johnson,e1980,estanzae1,elinee1).e

•e “Y’uehaffiestruggleefiemekeen’semeet”.e‘Youehaveetoestruggleetoemakeeendse meet’e(Johnson,e1980,estanzae1,elinee4).e

•e “Demestaatemieaafeaseaedish-washah”.e‘Theyestartemeeoffeaseaedish-washer.’e (Johnson,e1980,estanzae3,elinee11).e

•e “Fusedemerabeitewidedemebigetaxerackit”.e‘Firstetheyerubeitewithetheirebigetaxe racket.’e(Johnson,e1980,estanzae5,elinee22).e

Theerelativeepronounseare:edate‘that’,ew(h)e(y)e‘which/what’,ehue‘who’.eThee examplesefromeLKJ’sepoemseare:e

•e “Deme sehe date blacke mane ise verye lazy”.e ‘Theye saye thate blacke mane ise verye lazy.’e(Johnson,e1980,estanzae9,elinee35).e

•e “Ise wheye wie ae gohe dhue ‘boute it?”.e ‘Whate aree wee goinge toe doe aboute it?’e (Johnson,e1980,estanzae14,elinee56)e

Theenexteoneeisetheelisteofedemonstratives:e

Singulare

dis(ya), dis ‘this’e

dat (de), dat ‘that’e

Plurale

dem(ya), dem ‘these’e

dem(de), dem ‘those’e

e

TheeexampleefromeLKJepoemeis:e

•e “Innaedisyaefacktriealledemedhueisepackecrackry”.e‘Inethisefactoryealletheyedoe isepackecrackery.’e(Johnson,e1980,estanzae11,elinee42).e

VerbseineJamaicaneCreoleesometimesedoenotechangeetheireformetoeindicatee timee referencee (tense),e number,e continuouse action,e ore passivee meaning.e Fore exampleeine“mieuseetoeworkepanedieandahgroun”e(Johnson,e1980,estanzae1,elinee2)e ise‘Ieusedetoeworkeonetheeunderground”.ee

AnotheredistinctiveeuseeofegrammareineJamaicaneCreoleeisetheeprepositionse andeconjunctions.eSomeecommonlyeusedeprepostionseare:ein(n)ae‘in’,eout(a)e‘oute of’,e pan/pone ‘on’,e a/afe e ‘of’,e e fah/e fi/fee ‘for’,e fie ‘to’.e Ande ine additione toe moree commonlyeusedeformselikeeane‘and’,eare‘or’ebote‘but’,esomeeconjunctionseinepatwae are:ecause/cawe‘because’,edo(w)ealthough’,etille‘until’.e

e

D. Review on Socio-political Background

Mosteofe LKJ”sepoemsedealewithetheesocialeconditioneofeEnglandeine1970se ande1980s.eTherefore,eiteiseimportantetoeknowetheesocio-politicalebackgroundeofe Englandeduringethoseetimes.e

Ine thee 1950se workerse frome thee Caribbean,e camee toe Englande toe worke ase laborerse ande transporte workers.e Moste ofe thee immigrantse livede ine London,e Birminghame ande Nottingham.e Manye Caribbeane camee withe skillse bute theye weree marginalizede ande givene meniale jobse thate whitee peoplee didn’te want.e However,e Britaine needede cheape labore fore reconstructionse poste Worlde Ware IIe ande thee immigrantse weree chosene toe doe thesee jobse (Lolley,e 2002).e e Thee presencee ofe thee blackecommunityeinetheemetropolitanecentreewaseconfrontedewitheprejudiceefuellede byeyearseofeimperialerule.eAsetheeriseeineimmigrationecontinuedesoedidetheeriseeine racialeviolenceeinethoseecities.eDuringe1950s,edebateeoneimmigrationeineparliamente andemediaefocusedeonetheeneedetoecontroleblackeimmigratione(Solomos,e2003:e53).ee Blackeimmigrantsebecameethee“problem”eineBritishesocietyeandeclashesewithewhitee Britonse oftene occurred.e Suche ofe thee clashese happenede one Auguste 23,e 1958e ine

Nottinge Hille wheree African-Caribbeane youthse weree attackede bye whitee youths.e TheseeriotsequicklyespreadetoeLondon.e

Theeriotseledetoethee1962eCommonwealtheImmigrantseActewhicherestrictede theeentryeofeimmigrantse intoeBritain.eTheepredominanteviewewasethaterestrictinge entrye woulde easee raciale conflict.e Althoughe thee Acte dide note specificallye mentione race,e “immigrant”e becamee synonymouse withe “black”.e Duringe thee 1960se thee economyeineEnglandewasedeclining,econsequentlyeBlackeworkersewereetheefirstetoe losee theire jobs.e Thosee whoe managede toe keepe theire jobse usuallye havee toe doublee worke withe lesse pay.e Ande bye 1972e non-whitese coulde onlye livee ine Britaine withe ae workepermiteoreifetheireparentseoregrandparentsewereeborneineBritain.ee

Theeinjustice,ediscriminationeandeoppressioneagainsteBlackepeopleeledetoethee risee ofe “Blacke Power”.e Thee terme “Blacke Power”e wase firste coinede duringe thee formationeofeBlackePantherePartyeineMississippi,eUS,eine1966.eThisemovementewase quicklyespreadeacrossetheeglobeefromeUSetoeEurope,eAsiaeandetheeCaribbean.eIne England,eBrixtonebecameetheecentereofeblackeyoutheorganizationewhichelateregavee birthetoeEngland’seBlackePanthereMovement.e

Duringe thee 1970se policee usee ofe Suse lawe (frome “suspectede person”e law)e increased.eThiselaweseemedetoeepitomizeeracism.eItewaseaelawethatepermittedepolicee toe stop,e searche ande evene arreste peoplee merelye one thee suspicione thate theye weree loiteringewithetheeintentioneofecommittingeae crime.eManyeofe Blackepeopleeweree arrestedeusingethiselawe(Lolley,e2002).eTheeBlackePanthereMovemente(BPM)ewase foundede toe fighte againste suche law,e raciale oppression,e policee brutality,e

discriminationeandeinjusticeeagainsteblackepeople.eBPMerecruitedeblackeyouthsetoe joine thee Panthere Youthe Leaguee wheree theye weree taughte toe defende themselvese intellectuallyeandephysicallyeagainsteinjusticeeandeoppression.eByedoingesoeBPMe wase tryinge toe givee ae sensee ofe pridee amonge blacke youths.e LKJe himselfe wase ae membereofeBPM.e

Ase ae blacke persone growinge upe ine Englande LKJe hade toe deale withe raciale oppression.e Subjectede toe suche hardshipe madee LKJe decidede toe joine thee Blacke PanthereMovementeine1970e(Pryce,e2009).eAseaemembereofeYoutheSectioneinethee Blacke Panthere Movement,e LKJe wase activelye involvede ine thee studye ofe Blacke History,e Politicse ande Culture.e Ite wase duringe hise involvemente withe thee Blacke Panthere Movemente thate LKJe discoverede Blacke Literature.e Hee reade ae booke bye W.E.BeDuboisecalledeTheeSouleofeBlackeFolkeandediscoverede“...theeproblemeofe thee20thecenturyebeingetheeproblemeofetheecoloreline”eandealsoeheecouldeidentifiede withe hise owne experiencee growinge upe ine Englande “...thee shadowe ofe thee veile thate hungeovereblackelives”e(Lolley,e2002).eLKJethenewaseinspiredetoewriteepoetry.e

e

E. Theoretical Framework

Inethisethesis,eIeusedesomeetheoriesewhicheareehelpfuletoeansweretheeproblemse formulatedeinetheefirstechapter.eTheyeareetheoryeofeliteraryeelementseandetheoryeofe racism.eIeusedetheoryeofeimageryetoeanalyzeehowetheeimageseareepresentedeinethee poem.eByeusingetheetheoryeoferacismeIewantetoeanalyzeehowetheesubordinateegroupee

reactse towardse racism.e Thee theorye ofe Natione Languagee ande thee theorye ofe ambivalencee aree usede toe analyzee howe thee resistancee ise reflectede throughe thee imagerieseinetheepoem.e

25

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY

e

A. Object of the Study

TheeobjectseofethisestudyeareetwoepoemsebyeLintoneKwesieJohnsoneentitlede “InglaneiseaeBitch”.eThisepoem,eandealleotherepoemsebyeLKJ,ebelongsetoedubepoetrye genre.e Ite ise ae forme ofe performancee poetrye ofe Weste Indiese origin,e ae kinde ofe orale poetryeperformedetoetheeaccompanimenteofereggaeemusic.e

Thee poeme “Inglane ise ae Bitch”e usede ine thise researche ise takene frome LKJ’se albume releasede bye Islande Records.e “Inglane ise ae Bitch”e ise takene frome hise albume Bass Culturee releasede ine 1980.e “Inglane ise ae Bitch”e ise onee ofe thee poemse whiche appeare ine hise bookeMi Revalueshanary Frene publishede bye Penguine Classice ine 2002.eIne“InglaneiseaeBitch”eJohnsoneusedetheepersonaeofeaneagingeimmigrant.eIne thisepoem,etheespeakeredescribeseaelisteofepoorlyepaidejobseheehasetoedoeineorderetoe surviveeineLondon.eHere,eLKJeraisedetheeissueeofelaboreexploitationeandeisolatione ofe blacke peoplee ase thee poem’se theme.e Thise poeme ise ae testimonye toe thee disillusionmenteandeangereofetheeblackeimmigrants’eexperienceeineLondon.eInethise poemeLKJemostlyeusedeliteraledescriptionetoecreateetheeimagery.e

B. Approach of the Study

Ine ordere toe producee ae goode analysise ofe ae literarye worke onee ore moree approacheseareeneeded,eforeexamplesetheeformalisticeapproach,etheepsychologicale approach,etheesociologicaleapproach,etheegendereapproach,epost-colonialeapproach,e etc.e “Inglane ise ae Bitch”e ise ae poeme dealinge withe thee strugglee ofe ae Caribbeane immigranteineLondon.eThus,etoeunderstandehoweresistanceeworkseinethisepoemeisetoe seeeiteinepostcolonialeperspective.e

Postcoloniale approache dealse withe thee issuese like:e slavery,e race,e gender,e place,eoppression,erepresentation,eanderesponseetoetheeimperialeEuropeediscoursese suche ase linguistics,e history,e ande philosophy.e Post-colonialisme focusese one thee effectse ande resistancee ofe colonizede people.e Ine manye ways,e thee subjecte ofe postcolonialismeiseresistanceeandepostcolonialismeitselfeiseaeprojecteoferesistance.ee

PetereBarryedividedefourecharacteristicseofepost-colonialereading.eTheefirsteise thee awarenesse ofe representationse ofe thee non-Europeane ase exotice ore immorale “Other”.eTheesecondeandetheethirdecharacteristicseareelanguageeandehybrideidentity.e Thee laste characteristice ise thee stresse one ‘cross-cultural’e interactionse (Barry,e 2002:194-196).e “Inglane ise ae Bitch”e ise ae poeme wheree blacke peoplee aree beinge stereotypede negativelye ande thee languagee usede ise unique.e Therefore,e ite seemse reasonableetoeemployepostcolonialeapproacheinethisestudy.e

C. Method of the Study

Thise studye ise ae librarye research.e Thee primarye datae usede ine thise studye ise ae poemebyeLintoneKwesieJohnsoneentitlede“InglaneiseaeBitch”.eTheeotheredataeIeusede areetheebookseofetheories,eandesomeeotherestudieserelatedetoetheeissueseoferacism.e

Inethiseresearch,eIeappliedesomeesteps.eTheefirstestepsewasecloseereadingeande closeelisteningetheepoem,ewhichewouldeleadetoeaecontextualecomprehensionetowarde theeimageryeusedeinetheepoem.eByedoingeso,etheemessageeofetheepoemewouldebee recognizablee throughe thee expressionse bothe ine musice ande thee writtene forms.e Thee secondestepewasecollectingetheedataeneededetoeanalyzeetheeproblemeformulation.e Next,e Ie conveye thee poemse ande analyzede thee resistancee ine it.e Finally,e Ie drewe thee conclusioneofetheewholeeanalysis.e

28

CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS

e

A.Imagery in “Inglan is a Bitch”

W´enemiejus´ecomeetoeLandanetoune Mieuseetoeworkepanedieandahgroune Buteworkin´epanedieandahgroune

Y´uedon´tegetefieknoweyourewayearounde (Johnson,e1980,estanzae1,elinese1-4)e e

Frometheespellingeofetheeworde‘Inglan’einetheetitleetheereaderecaneassumeethate thisepoemeisedifferentefromepoemsewritteneineStandardeEnglishespelling.eTheereadere canefurthereinferethatewhetheretheespeakereofetheepoem,eoretheepoetehimself,emuste haveecomeefromedifferenteculturalebackgroundeorefromedifferentecountry.eAsethee linese ofe thee firste stanzae continue,e ite becomese clearere thate thee speakere ise ane immigrantewhoecomesetoeLondoneandehisefirstejobeiseworkingeonetheeunderground.e InethisestanzaeLKJeemploysevisualeimageryeofeLondoneandeunderground.eTheeworde ‘London’e createse thee imagee ofe metropolitane citye withe alle thee luxurye ande thee advancede technologye thate ite has.e Ite cane bee assumede thate thee speakere comese toe Londonehopingetoefindeaepropereandesuitableejobeforeaebettereliving.eHowever,ethee realitye turnse oute toe bee different;e hee workse ine thee ‘andahground’.e Thee worde ‘andahground’ehereerefersetoetheesubwayeoreundergrounderailwayeineLondon.eThee worde‘andahground’ebringseoutetheeimageeofeaedarkeplaceeunderetheegroundewhiche isetheeoppositeeimageefrometheeluxuryeofetheemetropolitanecityeaboveeground.eThee repetitione ofe thee worde “andahground”e twicee ine thise stanzae ise toe emphasizee thee

imageeofehowedeepeandedarkeplaceeundergroundereallyeis.eThen,eproblemeariseseine theelasteline,e“Y’uedon’tegetefieknoweyourewayearound”e(Johnson,e1980,estanzae1,e linee 4).e Together,e thesee twoe linese createe thee sensee thate thee speakere feelse loste ore disorientedeandetheelackeofeknowledgeethatetheespeakerehaseofetheecultureeandethee countryeheeisetryingetoeintegrateeineto.eFrometheefirstemomenteheearriveseineLondon,e theespeakerehasealreadyebeingerejectedetoethee‘underground’.eIneotherewordseiteise hardeforehimetoeadaptetoetheeneweenvironment.e

InetheesecondestanzaetheepersonaeexpressesehiseresentmentetowardseEnglande byestatingethate“Inglaneiseaebitche/eDere’senoeescapineit”e(Johnson,e1980,estanzae2,e linese5-6)eande“Dere’senoerunnin’ewheyeframeit”e(Johnson,e1980,estanzae2,elinee8).ee TheeimageryeinethisestanzaeisearticulatedebyetheeuseeofemetaphorewhereeEnglandeise describede ase ae bitch,e ane unpleasante difficultye thate thee personae hade toe deale with.e Thee personae cursese Englande becausee hee feelse rejectede frome thee firste timee hee arrivedeandeworkedeineLondone‘andahground’ewhileethereeisenothingeheecanedoetoe avoideit.eThisestanzaeis,einefact,erepeatedethroughoutetheepoemeaseaekindeoferefraine witheaeslightedifferenceeinetheelasteline,ewhereeeachelineeiseaekindeofeadviceeforethee readereinedealingewithetheeharshelifeeineEngland.eTheedifferentelineseofethisestanzae willebeeexplainedelater.e

Miegeteaelickleejabeineaebihe´otelle

An´eawftaheaewhile,emiewozedoin´equiteewelle Demestaatemieaafeaseaedish-washahe

Butew´enemietekeaestack,emienohetuneclack-watchahe (Johnson,e1980,estanzae3,elinese9-12)e

e

Theevisualeimageryeinetheethirdestanzaeisebigehotel,edish-washereandeclock-watcher.eHere,eLKJeusedejuxtapositioneofe‘lickleejab’eande‘bihe`otel’etoecreateethee

atmospheree ofe inferioritye thate thee speakere feels.e Despitee thee inferioritye thate hee feels,etheespeakerementionseinetheesecondelineethatesomehoweheemanagedetoegete usedetoehisesecondejobewhereeheeworkserelentlesslyeaseaedish-washer.eTheephrasee ‘bigehotel’ecreatesetheeimageeofeaegrandeandeextravaganteplace.eYet,etheespeakere onlyegetseaemeniale‘littleejob’easeae‘dish-washer’einethee‘bigehotel’.eThougheonlye workeaseaedish-washer,etheespeakereworkserelentlesslyeaseheementionseinetheelaste lineeofethisestanza.eHeedoesenotebecomeeae‘clock-watcher’,eaepersonewhoealwayse checketheetimeetoemakeesureenotetoeworkeovertime,eevenewheneheegete‘stack’eofe worksetoedo.ee

Inetheefifthestanza,eLKJeusesevisualeimageryeofe‘littleewageepacket’.eHere,ethee speakerecomplainseaboutetheelowepaidejobeheehasetoedoeandehowesmallehisewageeise wheneheesaide“eW’enedemegi’eyouedielickleewageepackite/eFusedemerabeitewidedeme bige taxe rackit”e (Johnson,e 1980,e stanzae 5,e linese 17-18).e Thee worde ‘racket’e hase severale meaningse ineOED,e onee ofe theme ise ae dishoneste ore illegale waye ofe gettinge money.e Ine othere words,e thee speakere accusese hise employeee (ore government)e fore stealinge hise hard-earnede wage.e Ine thee nexte twoe line,e thee speakere sayse thate “Y’ue haffiestruggleefiemekeen’semeete/eAn’ew’eney’uegoheaey’uebedey’uejus’ecan’tesleep”e (Johnson,e1980,estanzae5,elinese19-20).eThisemeansethatetheespeakerehasetoestrugglee toe finde ae solutione toe overcomee hise incomee probleme whiche givese hime ae restlesse night.e

InetheeseventhestanzaeLKJecreatesetheevisualeimageryeofetheespeakereworkedige ditcheinetheecoldeenvironment.eTheeworde‘bitch’eine“Mieuseetoeworkedigeditchew’ene itecowlenohebitch”e(Johnson,e1980,estanzae7,elinee25)ehasedifferentemeaningefrome

theeoneeusedetoedescribee‘Inglan’.eTheeworde‘bitch’einetheetitleefunctionseaseaenoune whileeine“...w`eneitecowlenohebitch”eiteserveseaseaeverb.eIneotherewords,etheelinee meanse“evenewheneit’secoldeIedidn’tecomplain”.eLKJeusedetheesimilee“strangelikeeae mule”einetheesecondelineeofethisestanzaetoeemphasizeelaboriousejobeofetheespeaker.e Itewillecreateedifferentesenseeifetheepoetehadechosen,eforeexample,e“strongelikeeae horse”eore“strongelikeeaelion”esinceeaemuleeisemostlyeusedetoecarryeheavyeloads.e Thee seconde linee continuese withe thee phrasee “bute bwoy,e mie dide fool”e (Johnson,e 1980,estanzae7,elinee26)ewhichebyelookingeatetheepreviousesimileecanebeeassociatede withe thee idiome “stubborne ase ae mule”.e Thise linee thene meanse thate whene hee wase youngetheespeakereworkedesoehardeandeheeignoredesomeeadvicesethatepeopleemighte haveegivenetoehim.eTheespeakerethenerealizedehisestubbornnessewheneheesaide“Dene awftaheaewhileemiejus’estapedhueovahtimee/eDeneawftaheaewhileemiejus’ephuedunge mietool”e(Johnson,e1980,estanzae7,elinee27-28).e

InetheeninthestanzaeLKJeusesetheeimageeofedayework,enightework,ecleaneworke andedirtyework.eTheespeakeresayseinetheefirsteandesecondelinesethate“Wellemiedhue daye woke an’e mie dhue nitee woke /e Mie dhue cleane woke an’e mie dhue duttye wok”e (Johnson,e1980,estanzae9,elinese33-34).eTheseelinesesomehowesumeupetheevariouse jobsethatetheespeakerehasedoneeandeitecreateetheeimageeofeaehard-workingeman.eYet,e hee stille ae victime ofe whitee people’se stereotypee thate “blacke mane ise verye lazy”e (Johnson,e1980,estanzae9,elinee3).e

Thee eleventhe stanzae thee speakere tellse hise experiencee ofe workinge ine ae crockerye factorye ine Brackleye wheree hee workede fore fifteene years.e Frome thee firste stanzaeiteiseknownethatetheespeakereliveseineLondon.eYet,eheeisewillingetoefindeaejobe

ine Brackleye whiche ise quitee fare frome London.e Thee imagee ofe ae factorye upe ine BrackleyeisedifferentefrometheeimageeofetheemetropolitaneLondon.eTheespeakerehase toe finde ae jobe fare frome thee luxurye ofe ae bige citye wheree hee wase rejectede toe thee ‘underground’.e Aftere fifteene yearse workede withoute promotione thee speakere wase fired.e Ine thee thirteenthe stanzae thee speakere complainede aboute thee injusticee ine thee employmenteofeblackepeople.eHeeknewethatethereewereeplentyejobsethateavailablee buteitewasehardeforeaeblackemanetoegeteaejob.eTheespeakerementionedeinetheethirde andefourthelineseofetheethirteenthestanzaethate“Now,eatefifty-fiveemiegettin’equiteeol’e /eYetestill,edemesen’emiefiegohedrawedole”e(Johnson,e1980,estanzae13,elinese51-52).e Doleeiseaejobseekereallowanceepaidebyetheegovernmentetoeunemployedepeople.eIt’se onlye applicablee toe thosee whoe paide ae certaine amounte ine Nationale Insurancee Contributionseinetheepastetwoeyears.eThiseshowsethatedespiteealletheehardeworkethee speakerehadedoneewheneheewaseyoung,eheedidn’tehaveeenoughemoneyeaseaepensione toesupportehiseoldedays.eHeestillehadetoeworkeinehiseoldeageeineorderetoesurvive.eThise isetheeresulteofelaboreexploitation.e

Frome thee beginninge untile thee ende ofe thee poem,e thee personae ise constantlye speakingeineJamaicaneCreole.eEvenethoughetheepersonaehasebeenelivingeineEnglande longeenough,eheestilleuseepatwaeasehiselanguageepreference.eAccordingetoeAbramse imageryeofepoemecanebeecreatedefrometheetotalityecomponentsewhichemakeeupeae poeme(1999:e121).eLanguageeisetheemainecomponenteofeaepoem.eThus,ebyeusinge JamaicaneCreoleeandeitseorthographyeinethisepoemeLKJehasecreatedetheeimageeofeae blackeimmigrant.ee

B.Resistance as Reflected in “Inglan is a Bitch”

InethisepoemeLKJeaddressesetheeracismeineEnglandethroughetheeexperienceeofe aneagingeimmigrant.eTheeimageryeofetheespeaker’sejobseineeachestanzaeputetogethere depictse thee racisme thate blacke peoplee hase toe deale withe ine England.e Thee racisme depictse heree ise thee institutionale levele ofe racism.e Frome thee firste timee thee speakere cameetoeLondoneuntileheeisefiftyefiveeyearseoldeheeonlyedoesetheeunskilledejobs.eIne fact,eheeneveregetsetheechanceetoeescapeefromethee‘andahgroun’.eThiseinstitutionale levele ofe racisme ise thee resulte frome individuale levele racisme withe stereotypee likee ‘blackemaneiseveryelazy’.eThisenegativeestereotypeetheneisebroughtebyeindividualse toetheeworkseplaceeandelaterecreateseaesubtleeinstitutionaleracism.eAseCarmichaele ande Hamiltone explaine aboute thee institutionale levele ofe racism,e thee speakere ine thee poeme ise subjectede toe ae raciale oppressione bye thee dominante group.e Thee dominante groupe heree referse toe thee employerse ofe thee immigrante speaker.e Thee institutionale leveleoferacismeappliedehereeisetheeexploitationeofeimmigranteworkersewhoeareepaide verye littlee fore beinge marginalizede toe doe laboriouse jobe withe noe prospecte fore promotion.e Alle thee “daye wok”e ande “nitee wok”e ande evene thee “cleane wok”e ande “duttyewok”ethatetheespeakeredoneecannoteguaranteeethateheewillehaveebetterecareer.e Thise kinde ofe racisme ise basede one thee stereotypee thate “blacke mane ise verye lazy”e (Johnson,e 1980,e stanzae 9,e linee 3),e ae representatione ofe blacke peoplee ase immorale ‘Other’.ee

ItecanebeeclearlyeseenethatethisepoemeisewrittenealmosteentirelyeineJamaicane Creoleeorthography.eTheeonlyeSEefoundeinetheepoemeiseinetheephrasee“blackemaneise verye lazy”e (Johnson,e 1980,e stanzae 9,e linee 3).e Thee differencee ise strikinglye cleare

sincee ite ise thee poem’se onlye sustainede momente frome usinge patwae spellinge ande pronunciation,eandeitestrengthensetheepresenceeofe‘dem’,etheeoutsidersecommentinge one thee speakere ande thee communitye withe whiche hee ise associated.e Ite cane bee concludede thene thate patwae ande SEe usede ine thise poeme servese differente function:e patwae ise usede toe createe thee imagee ofe thee speakere ase ane immigrante frome thee CaribbeanewhileeSEeiseusedetoerepresentsetheegroupewhoemaintainsetheehegemonye i.e.etheewhiteeBritons.ee

Frometheeimagerieseanalyzedebefore,eitecanebeesaidethatetheepoemeemergede outeaseaevoiceetoearticulateetheeinjusticeeandeoppressionethatetheyeexperience.eIne “Inglane ise ae Bitch”e LKJe usese thee appealinge ande metaphoricale titlee toe showe hise discontenteofetheesocialeconditioneineEngland,eparticularlyetheeraceeissue.eEngland,e previouslyeconsideredeasethee‘motherland’ebyeitsecolonieseduringetheecolonialetime,e ise metaphoricallye describede ase ae bitch,e ane awful,e displeasing,e nasty,e ande unpleasante‘woman’ethatecausesedifficultieseoreproblems.eTheephraseeiserepeatede throughoutetheepoemetoeemphasizeetheeresentmentetowardsetheehardeconditionethate theeblackepeopleemustedealewithelivingeineEngland.e

Theeresistanceeagainsteracismeinethisepoemecanebeeseenefrometheerepetitioneofe theeimagerye“InglaneiseaeBitch”eandetheelinesethatefolloweiteinetheesecondestanza.e Theerepetitioneaseaekindeoferefraineinethisepoemehasesomeedifferenceeineeachelaste line.eTheelastelineeinetheesecondestanzae“Dere’senoerunnin’ewheeframeit”e(Johnson,e 1980,estanzae2,elinee8),efourthestanzae“Noebaddahetryefiehideeframeit”e(Johnson,e 1980,estanzae4,elinee16)eandesixthestanzase“Aenohelieemieaetell,eaetrue”e(Johnson,e 1980,e stanzae 6,e linee 24)e showe thate thee speakere ise submite toe thee harde lifee ine

England.e However,e ine thee eighthe stanzae “Y’ue haffie knowe howe fie survivee ine it”e (Johnson,e1980,estanzae8,elinee32)etenthestanzae“Y’uebettahefaceeupetoeit”e(Johnson,e 1980,estanzae10,elinee40)eandetwelfthestanzase“Dere’senoerunnin’e wheye frameit”e (Johnson,e1980,estanzae12,elinee48)eshowethatetheespeakereisenoelongeresubmitetoe hise fate.e Thesee linese showe insteade thate thee speakere intentse toe fighte againste thee injusticeeandeoppressioneratherethanegiveeupetoetheesituation.eAndeinetheelastestanzae “Isewheyewieaegohedhue‘bouteit?”e(Johnson,e1980,estanzae14,elinee56)etheespeakere addressesetheequestionetoetheereadereandealsoeblackepeopleeineparticular.eTheeusede ofetheeworde‘wi’einethiselineeiseworthetoenotice.eFrometheebeginningetheespeakere onlyeaddressesehimselfease‘mi’eandetheereader/audienceease‘y`u’.eWhenetheespeakere finallyeusesetheeworde‘wi’eheewantsetheereader/audienceeandetheeblackepeopleeine particularetoecomeetogethereineunityetoefighteagainstetheeoppression.eTheeintendede answereofetheequestioneisenotetoegoebacketoetheeCaribbeanebutetoelearnefromethee speaker’sebadeexperienceeineorderetoesurviveeineEnglandewhereeinstitutionaleracisme exists.e Thus,e thise poeme cane alsoe bee seene ase LKJ’se supporte ofe thee diasporice movementeofetheeblackepeopleetoetheemetropolitanecenter.e

Thise poem,e however,e alsoe showse ae kinde ofe ambivalencee relationshipe betweene thee subalterne (thee immigrant)e ande thee dominante powere (thee whitee employee/thee government).e Evene thoughe thee imagerye ofe “Inglane ise ae bitch”e ise repeatede fourteene timese ine thise poeme toe showe thee discontente feelinge ofe blacke peopleetowardethee‘motherland’eEngland,etheyestilleneedeEnglandeandetheyedon’te goebacketoetheirecountries.eIteisetheesameewithetheedominanteblocetoo.eEvenethoughe theyeresenteblackepeopleeandehaveenegativeestereotypeethateblackemaneiseveryelazy,e

someeofetheeemployeesestilleneedeblackemeneasecheapelaboretoedoesomeemenialejobe thatewhiteemenedon’tewant.e

Frometheepostcolonialeperspective,etheeresistanceefromethisepoemecanealsoebee explicitlyeseenefrome“theesecondeareaeofeconcerneinepostcolonialecriticism”e(Barry,e 2002:e195),elanguage.eInetheeseventhestanzaeLKJeusedeaesimilee“strangelikeeaemule”e (Johnson,e1980,estanzae7,elinee2)etoedescribeetheepersona’sephysicalestrengtheinehise youtheage.eTheesimileeiseinterestingesinceemuleeiseaehybridedomesticatedeanimale withehorseeaseitsesireeandedonkeyeaseitsedam.eTheehybridecharacteristiceofemuleeis,e ine ae way,e suitse thee hybride identitye ofe thee speaker,e thee languagee hybriditye ine particular.ePatwaeusedebyetheespeaker,ehasesimilarecharacteristics;eitehaseEnglish’e vocabularieseandegrammarewithesomeemodificationeinfluencesefromeWesteAfricane languages.eJamaicaneCreole,eorepatwa,eusedeineLKJ’sepoemeisetheeresultefromethee interactionebetweeneBritishecolonisteandeAfricaneslaveseduringetheecolonialetimese ine Jamaica.e Thee languagee ande itse placee ine societye reflecte thee cruele historye ofe JamaicaeaseaeBritishesugarecolonyeuntileitseindependenceeine1962.eIteiseclearethene thatepatwaeiseaehybridelanguage.ee

RajeeveS.ePatkeementionedethateatetheesocialelevel,epatwaerepresentseclassese andeindividualsewhoseeuseeofelanguageewasenoteaccommodatedeinetheenormseofethee middle-classeminorityethatebenefitedefromecolonialeeducation.eAtetheeliteraryelevel,e patwae givese linguistice subculturese ae placee withine ae revisede concepte ofe literaturee (2006:e97).eMosteofetheetimeseJamaicaneCreoleeiseconsideredeasebrokene Englishe andeaseaecorruptioneofeEnglisheandeaedialecteusedebyeuneducatedepeople.eHowever,e Ashcrofteet.alementionedethateaccordingetoeHomieK.eBhabha,eratherethaneindicatinge

corruptioneoredecline,ehybridityemayebeetheemostecommoneandeeffectiveeformeofe subversivee oppositione sincee ite displayse thee “necessarye deformatione ande displacementeofeallesiteseofediscriminationeandedomination”e(Ashcrofteet.al,e1995:e 9).eSo,ewheneLKJeusesepatwaeheedistortsetheedominationeofeStandardeEnglishe(SE)e byeturnseaeblindeeyeetoetheeformalepatternsedictatedebyeEnglishegrammareandewritese ineJamaicaneCreoleeorthography.eInesoedoingeLKJeadoptedewithehonoresomethinge thatetheehegemonyeblocemeanteaseaneinsult.e

RelyingeoneEdwardeK.eBrathwaite’setheoryeofenationelanguage,eLKJ’sepoemse embracesetheespectrumeofelinguisticeexpressioneaffordedetoeblackepeopleethroughe thee historye ofe resistancee ande survival.e Whilee Englishe languagee cane conveye intellectuale conceptse ande denotativee reference,e onlyepatwae whiche ise spokene ine childhoode ande ine homee carriese thee emotionale weighte ande connotatione thate aree importantetoeLKJ’sepoem.eThus,ebyeemployingeJamaicaneCreoleinehisepoemeLKJe alsoe representse thee experiencee ofe Caribbeane people.e Bye writinge hise poeme ine Jamaicane Creolee orthographye LKJe appropriatede thee languagee to,e ase Chinuae Achebeesaid,e“bearetheeburdeneofeanothereexperience”e(Ashcrofteet.al,e1995:e19).e Thee Jamaicane Creolee orthographye thuse usede toe confronte thee historye ofe mimicrye andemockeryebyetheemetropolitan.e

AseAshcrofteexplainsetheecontroleoverelanguageeiseoneeofetheemainefeaturese ofeimperialeoppressione(2002:e7).eThisecontroleisemaintainedebyetheeinstallingeofe ‘standard’eversioneofeEnglishelanguageeasetheenormethrougheeducationesystemeande marginalizingealle‘variants’easeimpurities.eAseaepoeteborneineJamaicaeandelatereone movedetoeEngland,eJohnsonewouldehaveebeenesubjectedetoethee‘imperialeeducatione

system’easeAshcroftedescribes.eFrometheetitlee“InglaneiseaeBitch”eitecanebeeseenethate Johnsone refusese toe speak/writee ‘England’.e Bye usinge ane abbreviatede Inglan,e LKJe translatesetheeproudeimperialesignifieretoefiteaeparticularevoiceeandesensibility.eThee thuddinge ‘an’e suffix,e whiche ise alsoe attachede toe thee empire’se capitale ‘Landan’,e phonicallye articulatese thee poem’se dejectede tone.e Ine fact,e thee wholee Jamaicane CreoleephonemiceorthographyeusedeinetheepoemeiseLKJ’seattemptetoesubverteSE.e Ande thee strongeste momente ofe resistancee ine LKJ’se poeme againste SEe ase thee dominantelanguageeisewhenetheepoeteperformsehisepoem,eeithereinepubliceoreonethee recordedemedia.e

SoeLKJ’sestrategyeoferesistanceeisebyecreatingetheeimagerieseofehard-workinge blackemanewhicheiseclearlyetheeoppositeefrometheenegativeeracistestereotypeethate blacke mane ise verye lazy.e Frome thee imageriese ine thee refraine LKJe alsoe encouragee blackepeopleetoenotetoegiveeupetoetheeharsherealityebutetoefighteforetheirerights.eLKJe mostlyeusedepatwaeandeonlyeaebiteofeStandardeEnglisheinethisepoemetoereverseetheire positions,e patwae becomese thee dominante languagee whilee SEe becomese thee subordinate.ePatwaeineLKJ’sepoemegiveseethniceandelinguisticediversityeitsespaceeine theemiddleeofetheemetropolitanecentreeofeLondon.eInefact,eineaneintervieweine2002e byetheeBBCeRadioe4eLKJestatedethatewritingeandeperformingeusingepatwae“...wase ane acte ofe rebellione really....Ie supposede subconsciouslye Ie wante toe subverte thee Englishelanguage”e(Lolley,e2002).e

39

CHAPTER V CONCLUSION

Ine “Inglane ise ae Bitch” LKJe providese settingse wheree blacke peoplee suffere constantlyefrometheepressureeracismebutestillekeepingealiveetheehopeeofebeingeablee toeovercomeetheeproblems.eTheeracismeinetheepoemecanebeeseeneinetheeimageryeofe lowlyepaidemenialejobs.eIteisetheeexactepictureeofetheeblackeimmigranteineLondon.e Eveneifetheyehadeskills,emosteofetheeimmigrantsewereegivenetheemenialejobsethate whiteepeopleedidn’tewant.eTheeargumenteagainsteemployingeblackepeopleewasetheye wereelazy.eIne“InglaneiseaeBitch”eLKJerefuteetheestereotypeeandeshowsethateblacke peopleewereehardeworkers.eWithehisepoemeLKJeurgedeblackepeopleetoestandefirmeine Englandeandefighteforetheirerightseagainstealleprejudiceeanderacialestereotype.ee

Theeimagerieseinetheepoemeareepresentedethroughevisualeimageries,emetaphore ande simile.e Thee visuale imageriese aree thee Jamaicane Creolee orthographye whiche createsetheeimageeofeaeblackeCaribbeaneandealsoefrometheejobsethatetheespeakeretellse ine thee poem.e Thee metaphore ise frome thee titlee “Inglane ise ae Bitch”.e Thee metaphore createse thee oppositee imagee ofe Englande whiche previouslye considerede ase thee “motherland”ebyeitsecoloniesetoetheeimageeofeaetroublesomeeandeunpleasantething.e Theesimilee“strangelikeeaemule”ecreatesetheeimageeofehybrydeidentityeofetheeblacke CaribbeaneandealsoeJamaicaneCreoleeitself.eAlletheseeimageriesereflectedehowethee speakererefuseetoesubmitetoetheeracistesocietyeandechooseetoestandefirmeineEnglande andedealsewithetheeracistesociety.e

LKJ’sepoemeisemosteeffectiveewheneperformedeandeheardebyetheeaudience.e ThroughehisepoemseLKJecreatedeandereinforcedeaesenseeofecommunaleidentityeande establishedeaehybrideoral/literaryetraditionedifferentefrometheepreexistingeEnglishe literaryetradition.eHisepoemealsoefocuseseonetheeblackepeople’seattemptetoemakeeae homeeineBritain.ee

LKJe ise entirelye awaree ofe thee powere ofe wordse ande discoursese ase modese ofe recognitione ande domination,e hencee thee usee ofe specifice dialects.e Frome thee verye beginning,etheereaderenoticesetheefocusedeonetheelanguageeusedebyeLKJ.eIteisethee poet’se methode toe establishe ae waye ofe interactinge withe thee reader.e Bye usinge suche dialects,eeithereperformseorewriteseineit,etheepoetedemandseaelessepassiveebehaviore frometheereaderesoeasetoedecodeetheemessage.eAseaeresult,etheereader/audienceeise invitede crosse thee conventionale boundariese ofe poetrye ande writing,e ande hase moree participationeinetheeconstructioneofemeanings.ee

ForeLKJeusingepatwa toecreateeimageryeofeaehard-workingeblackemaneinehise poeme ise politicallye motivated,e ae choicee informede bye ane acutee awarenesse ofe itse historyeasetheelanguageeofetheeoppressed,eiteiseaemediumeoferesistanceeallowingethee expressione ofe ae moree authentice ande indigenouse sensee ofe blacke ore Caribbeane identity.e

e e e

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abrams,e M.e H.eA Glossary of Literary Terms.e 7th_{e ed.e Massachusetts:e} Heinlee&eHeinle,e1999.e

e

Arnold,eA.eJames.eEd.eA History of Literature in the Caribbean: Volume 2: English- and Dutch-Speaking Regions.e Amsterdam:e Johne BenjaminsePublishingeCompany,e2001.e

e

Ashcroft,eBill,eGaretheGriffithseandeHeleneTiffins.eEds.eeKey Concepts in Postcolonial Studies.eeLondon:eRoutledge,e1998.e

e

Ashcroft,eBill,eGaretheGriffithseandeHeleneTiffins.eThe Empire Writes Back: Theory and practice in post-colonial literatures.e2ndeed.e London:eRoutledge,e2002.e

e

Ashcroft,eBill,eGaretheGriffithseandeHeleneTiffins.eEds.eThe Post-colonial Studies Reader.eLondon:eRoutledge,e1995.ee

e

Back,eLeseandeJohneSolomos.eEds.eTheories of Race and Racism.eLondon:e Routledge,e2000.e

e

Barry,ePeter.eBeginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory.e2nd_{eed.eNeweYork:eManchestereUniversityePress,e2002.e} e

Cassidy,eF.eG,eandeR.eB.eLeePage.eEds.eDictionary of Jamaican English.e 2nd_{eed.eCambridge:eCambridgeeUniversityePress,e1980.e}

e

Durrleman-Tame,e Stephanie.e The Syntax of Jamaican Creole: A Cartographic Perspective.eAmsterdam:eJohneBenjaminePublishinge Co.,e2008.e e Johnson,eLintoneKwesi.e“InglaneiseaeBitch.”eBass Culture.eIslandeRecords,e 1980.e<http://www.lyricsoverload.com/lyrics/Linton-Kwesi-Johnson-Inglan-Is-A-Bitch-lyrics/232235>e(4eAuguste2013)e e ---.”Riots,eRhymeseandeReasons”.e2012.e <http://www.lintonkwesijohnson.com/2012/04/18/riots-rhymes-and-reason/>e e

Lavelle,e Kristene M.,e ande Joee R.e Feagin.e “Institutionale Racism.”e Encyclopedia of Race and Racism Vol. 2.eDetroit:eTheeGaleeGroup,e 2008.e

Lolley,eSue.eLinton Kwesi Johnson. BBCeRadioe4,e2002.

<http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00947g4>e(4eAuguste2013).e e

Mania,e Erice W.,e Jamese M.e Jonese ande Samuele L.e Gaertner.e “Sociale PsychologyeofeRacism.”eEncyclopedia of Race and Racism Vol. 3.e Detroit:eTheeGaleeGroup,e2008.e e Novak,eChristoph.e“LintoneKwesieJohnson’sepoetryeaseaecollectivee semantics:eAxeleHonneth’setheoryeoferecognitioneandetheepoetice intellectual”.e <http://www.academia.edu/3028606/Linton_Kwesi_Johnsons_poet ry_as_a_collective_semantics>e(4eAuguste2013)e e

Patkee,e Rajeeve S.e Postcolonial Poetry in English.e Oxford:e Oxforde UniversityePress,e2006.e

e

Pryce,eAlex.eLinton Kwesi Johnson.e

<http://literature.britishcouncil.org/linton-kwesi-johnson>e(8e Auguste2015).e e Solé,eGustavoeJ.eAdriel.e“Word,eSounde&ePower:eTheeDubePoetryeofe LintoneKwesieJohnsoneandeJohneAgard”.e <http://www.academia.edu/3668750/Word_Sound_and_Power_Th e_Dub_Poetry_of_Linton_Kwesi_Johnson_and_John_Agard_Rese arch_paper_>e(4eAuguste2013)e e

Solomos,eJohn.eRace and Racism in Britain.e3rdeed.eNeweYork:ePalgravee Macmillan,e2003.e

e

Wehmeier,e Sally.,e Colline McIntosh.,e Joannae Turnbull.,e ande Michaele Ashby.e Eds.e Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary.e 7th_{e ed.e} Oxford:eOxfordeUniversityePress,e2005.e

43

APPENDIX

Inglan is a Bitch

W´enemiejus´ecomeetoeLandanetoune Mieuseetoeworkepanedieandahgroune Buteworkin´epanedieandahgroune

Y´uedon´tegetefieknoweyourewayearounde e

Inglaneiseaebitche Dere´senoeescapineite Inglaneiseaebitche

Dere´senoerunnin´ewheyeframeite e

Miegeteaelickleejabeineaebihe´otelle

An´eawftaheaewhile,emiewozedoin´equiteewelle Demestaatemieaafeaseaedish-washahe

Butew´enemietekeaestack,emienohetuneclack-watchahe e

Inglaneiseaebitche Dere´senoeescapineite Inglaneiseaebitche

Noebaddahetryefiehideeframeite e

W´enedemegi´eyouedielickleewageepackite Fusedemerabeitewidedemebigetaxerackite Y´uehaffiestruggleefiemekeen´semeete

An´ew´eney´uegoheaey´uebedey´uejus´ecan´tesleepe e

Inglaneiseaebitche Dere´senoeescapineite Inglaneiseaebitche

Aenohelieemieaetell,eaetruee e

Mieuseetoeworkedigeditchew´eneitecowlenohebitche Miedidestrangelikeeaemule,ebutebwoy,emiedidefoole Deneawftaheaewhileemiejus´estapedhueovahtimee Deneawftaheaewhileemiejus´ephuedungemietoole e

Inglaneiseaebitche Dere´senoeescapineite Inglaneiseaebitche

Y´uehaffieknowehowefiesurviveeineite e

Wellemiedhuedayewokean´emiedhueniteewoke Miedhuecleanewokean´emiedhueduttyewoke Demesehedateblackemaneiseveryelazye

Buteifey´uesiehowemiewokey´uewouldaeseyemiecrazye e

Inglaneiseaebitche Dere´senoeescapineite Inglaneiseaebitche

Y´uebettahefaceeupetoeite e

DemeaehaveeaelickleefacktrieupeinnaeBracklye Innaedisyaefacktriealledemedhueisepackecrackrye Fiedielaasefifteeneyearsedemegetemielaybahe Noweawftahefifteeneyearsemiefalleouteaefayvahe e

Inglaneiseaebitche Dere´senoeescapineite Inglaneiseaebitche

Dere´senoerunnin´ewheyeframeite e

Mieknowedemehaveework,eworkeineabundante Yetestill,edememekemieredundante

Now,eatefifty-fiveemiegettin´equiteeol´e Yetestill,edemesen´emiefiegohedrawedolee e

Inglaneiseaebitche Dere´senoeescapineite Inglaneiseaebitche

Isewheyewieaegohedhue´bouteit?e e

LKJ’sepoemeisemosteeffectiveewheneperformedeandeheardebyetheeaudience.e ThroughehisepoemseLKJecreatedeandereinforcedeaesenseeofecommunaleidentityeande establishedeaehybrideoral/literaryetraditionedifferentefrometheepreexistingeEnglishe literaryetradition.eHisepoemealsoefocuseseonetheeblackepeople’seattemptetoemakeeae homeeineBritain.ee

LKJe ise entirelye awaree ofe thee powere ofe wordse ande discoursese ase modese ofe recognitione ande domination,e hencee thee usee ofe specifice dialects.e Frome thee verye beginning,etheereaderenoticesetheefocusedeonetheelanguageeusedebyeLKJ.eIteisethee poet’se methode toe establishe ae waye ofe interactinge withe thee reader.e Bye usinge suche dialects,eeithereperformseorewriteseineit,etheepoetedemandseaelessepassiveebehaviore frometheereaderesoeasetoedecodeetheemessage.eAseaeresult,etheereader/audienceeise invitede crosse thee conventionale boundariese ofe poetrye ande writing,e ande hase moree participationeinetheeconstructioneofemeanings.ee

ForeLKJeusingepatwa toecreateeimageryeofeaehard-workingeblackemaneinehise poeme ise politicallye motivated,e ae choicee informede bye ane acutee awarenesse ofe itse historyeasetheelanguageeofetheeoppressed,eiteiseaemediumeoferesistanceeallowingethee expressione ofe ae moree authentice ande indigenouse sensee ofe blacke ore Caribbeane identity.e

e e e

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abrams,e M.e H.eA Glossary of Literary Terms.e 7the ed.e Massachusetts:e Heinlee&eHeinle,e1999.e

e

Arnold,eA.eJames.eEd.eA History of Literature in the Caribbean: Volume 2: English- and Dutch-Speaking Regions.e Amsterdam:e Johne BenjaminsePublishingeCompany,e2001.e

e

Ashcroft,eBill,eGaretheGriffithseandeHeleneTiffins.eEds.eeKey Concepts in Postcolonial Studies.eeLondon:eRoutledge,e1998.e

e

Ashcroft,eBill,eGaretheGriffithseandeHeleneTiffins.eThe Empire Writes Back: Theory and practice in post-colonial literatures.e2ndeed.e London:eRoutledge,e2002.e

e

Ashcroft,eBill,eGaretheGriffithseandeHeleneTiffins.eEds.eThe Post-colonial Studies Reader.eLondon:eRoutledge,e1995.ee

e

Back,eLeseandeJohneSolomos.eEds.eTheories of Race and Racism.eLondon:e Routledge,e2000.e

e

Barry,ePeter.eBeginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory.e2nd_{eed.eNeweYork:eManchestereUniversityePress,e2002.e}

e

Cassidy,eF.eG,eandeR.eB.eLeePage.eEds.eDictionary of Jamaican English.e 2nd_{eed.eCambridge:eCambridgeeUniversityePress,e1980.e}

e

Durrleman-Tame,e Stephanie.e The Syntax of Jamaican Creole: A Cartographic Perspective.eAmsterdam:eJohneBenjaminePublishinge Co.,e2008.e

e

Johnson,eLintoneKwesi.e“InglaneiseaeBitch.”eBass Culture.eIslandeRecords,e 1980.e<http://www.lyricsoverload.com/lyrics/Linton-Kwesi-Johnson-Inglan-Is-A-Bitch-lyrics/232235>e(4eAuguste2013)e e ---.”Riots,eRhymeseandeReasons”.e2012.e <http://www.lintonkwesijohnson.com/2012/04/18/riots-rhymes-and-reason/>e e

Lavelle,e Kristene M.,e ande Joee R.e Feagin.e “Institutionale Racism.”e

Encyclopedia of Race and Racism Vol. 2.eDetroit:eTheeGaleeGroup,e 2008.e

Lolley,eSue.eLinton Kwesi Johnson. BBCeRadioe4,e2002.

<http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00947g4>e(4eAuguste2013).e e

Mania,e Erice W.,e Jamese M.e Jonese ande Samuele L.e Gaertner.e “Sociale PsychologyeofeRacism.”eEncyclopedia of Race and Racism Vol. 3.e Detroit:eTheeGaleeGroup,e2008.e

e

Novak,eChristoph.e“LintoneKwesieJohnson’sepoetryeaseaecollectivee semantics:eAxeleHonneth’setheoryeoferecognitioneandetheepoetice intellectual”.e

<http://www.academia.edu/3028606/Linton_Kwesi_Johnsons_poet ry_as_a_collective_semantics>e(4eAuguste2013)e

e

Patkee,e Rajeeve S.e Postcolonial Poetry in English.e Oxford:e Oxforde UniversityePress,e2006.e

e

Pryce,eAlex.eLinton Kwesi Johnson.e

<http://literature.britishcouncil.org/linton-kwesi-johnson>e(8e Auguste2015).e

e

Solé,eGustavoeJ.eAdriel.e“Word,eSounde&ePower:eTheeDubePoetryeofe LintoneKwesieJohnsoneandeJohneAgard”.e

<http://www.academia.edu/3668750/Word_Sound_and_Power_Th e_Dub_Poetry_of_Linton_Kwesi_Johnson_and_John_Agard_Rese arch_paper_>e(4eAuguste2013)e

e

Solomos,eJohn.eRace and Racism in Britain.e3rdeed.eNeweYork:ePalgravee Macmillan,e2003.e

e

Wehmeier,e Sally.,e Colline McIntosh.,e Joannae Turnbull.,e ande Michaele Ashby.e Eds.e Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary.e 7th_{e ed.e}

Oxford:eOxfordeUniversityePress,e2005.e e

43

APPENDIX

Inglan is a Bitch

W´enemiejus´ecomeetoeLandanetoune Mieuseetoeworkepanedieandahgroune Buteworkin´epanedieandahgroune

Y´uedon´tegetefieknoweyourewayearounde e

Inglaneiseaebitche Dere´senoeescapineite Inglaneiseaebitche

Dere´senoerunnin´ewheyeframeite e

Miegeteaelickleejabeineaebihe´otelle

An´eawftaheaewhile,emiewozedoin´equiteewelle Demestaatemieaafeaseaedish-washahe

Butew´enemietekeaestack,emienohetuneclack-watchahe e

Inglaneiseaebitche Dere´senoeescapineite Inglaneiseaebitche

Noebaddahetryefiehideeframeite

e

W´enedemegi´eyouedielickleewageepackite Fusedemerabeitewidedemebigetaxerackite Y´uehaffiestruggleefiemekeen´semeete

An´ew´eney´uegoheaey´uebedey´uejus´ecan´tesleepe e

Inglaneiseaebitche Dere´senoeescapineite Inglaneiseaebitche

Aenohelieemieaetell,eaetruee e

Mieuseetoeworkedigeditchew´eneitecowlenohebitche Miedidestrangelikeeaemule,ebutebwoy,emiedidefoole Deneawftaheaewhileemiejus´estapedhueovahtimee Deneawftaheaewhileemiejus´ephuedungemietoole e

Inglaneiseaebitche Dere´senoeescapineite Inglaneiseaebitche

Y´uehaffieknowehowefiesurviveeineite e

Wellemiedhuedayewokean´emiedhueniteewoke Miedhuecleanewokean´emiedhueduttyewoke Demesehedateblackemaneiseveryelazye

Buteifey´uesiehowemiewokey´uewouldaeseyemiecrazye e

Inglaneiseaebitche Dere´senoeescapineite Inglaneiseaebitche

Y´uebettahefaceeupetoeite e

DemeaehaveeaelickleefacktrieupeinnaeBracklye Innaedisyaefacktriealledemedhueisepackecrackrye Fiedielaasefifteeneyearsedemegetemielaybahe Noweawftahefifteeneyearsemiefalleouteaefayvahe e

Inglaneiseaebitche Dere´senoeescapineite Inglaneiseaebitche

Dere´senoerunnin´ewheyeframeite e

Mieknowedemehaveework,eworkeineabundante Yetestill,edememekemieredundante

Now,eatefifty-fiveemiegettin´equiteeol´e Yetestill,edemesen´emiefiegohedrawedolee e

Inglaneiseaebitche Dere´senoeescapineite Inglaneiseaebitche

Isewheyewieaegohedhue´bouteit?e e