AN ANALYSIS OF REFUSAL EXPRESSIONS IN “HARRY POTTER AND THE GOBLET OF FIRE” FILM (A SOCIO-PRAGMATICS APPROACH)
AN ANALYSIS OF REFUSAL EXPRESSIONS IN “HARRY POTTER AND THE GOBLET OF FIRE” FILM (A SOCIO-PRAGMATICS APPROACH)
THESIS Submitted as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for Sarjana Sastra Degree in English Department Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University
By: Irena Tomi Aswari C0305036 ENGLISH DEPARTMENT FACULTY OF LETTERS AND FINE ARTS SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY 2010
AN ANALYSIS OF REFUSAL EXPRESSIONS IN “HARRY POTTER AND THE GOBLET OF FIRE” FILM (A SOCIO-PRAGMATICS APPROACH)
By: Irena Tomi Aswari C0305036
Approved to be examined before the Board of Examiners Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University
Thesis Consultant
Drs. Budi Waskita, M. Pd NIP. 19521108 198303 1001
Head of English Department
Dr. Djatmika, MA NIP. 19670726 199302 1001
AN ANALYSIS OF REFUSAL EXPRESSIONS IN “HARRY POTTER AND THE GOBLET OF FIRE” FILM (A SOCIO-PRAGMATICS APPROACH)
By: Irena Tomi Aswari C0305036
Accepted and Approved by the Board of Examiners Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University
On April 28 th 2010
Board of Examiners Position
Dr. Djatmika, MA
NIP. 19670726 199302 1001
2. Secretary Agus Dwi Priyanto, SS, M. CALL ( )
NIP. 19740818 200012 1001
3. First Examiner
Drs. Budi Waskita, M. Pd
NIP. 19521108 198303 1001
4. Second Examiner
Drs. Sri Marmanto, M.Hum
NIP. 19500901 198601 1001
Dean of Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University Surakarta
Drs. Sudarno, MA NIP. 19530314 198506 1001
PRONOUNCEMENT
Name : Irena Tomi Aswari NIP : C 0305036
Stated wholeheartedly that this thesis entitled An Analysis of Refusal Expressions in “Harry Potter and The Goblet of Fire” film (A Socio-Pragmatics Approach) is made by the researcher. It is neither a plagiarism, nor made by others. The things related to other people‟s work are written in quotation and
included within the bibliography.
If it is then proved that the researcher cheats, the researcher is ready to take the responsibility
Surakarta,
The researcher
Irena Tomi Aswari
MOTTO
To think is easy. To act is difficult. To act as one thinks is the most difficult. (Johann Wolfgang Von Goeth)
Far and away the best prize that life offers is the chance to work hard at work
worth doing (Theodore Roosevelt)
DEDICATION
This thesis is wholeheartedly dedicated to:
My beloved family My brothers My friends
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Bismillahirrohmanirrohim. Alhamduli llahi robbil „alamin.
All praise is only for The Almighty God, Allah SWT, for His blessing, grace and guidance in completing this thesis. However, this thesis would not be completed without encouragement, support, help, guidance, and advice from others. Therefore, I would like to express my fondest gratitude to:
1. The dean of Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts, Drs. Sudarno, M. A for approving this thesis.
2. The head of English Department, Dr. Djatmika, M. A for the permission to conduct this thesis.
3. Drs. Budi Waskito, M. Pd as my thesis supervisor. Thank you for your guidance and advice in helping me to complete the thesis.
4. M. Taufiq Al-Makmun, S.S as my academic consultant. Thank you for the guidance and support in my academic period.
5. All the lecturers of English Department. Thank you very much for the guidance and knowledge you have given to me.
6. My beloved family. My mother and father, thank you for all you have given to me. My little niece thanks for always cheering the situation at home.
7. My brothers, thank you for your care, patience, support and everything you have done for me. Little thing has a big meaning for me. Thanks so much.
8. My lovely friends‟ d‟kamprets. Melon, Nunik, Yogi, thanks for sharing the room and everything. Lilis, Hesti, thank you for being patient with me. Fitria, Nurin, Rupert, Ima, Kiki, Puspa, thanks for your support. I learn many things from you all. I will always remember the time we have spent together.
9. All my friends in ED ‟05. I‟ll remember all the times we had together.
10. For everyone who I cannot mention, thank you for all support and help in
doing my thesis.
11. To all people who care to me, thank you for giving a new meaning in life.
Irena Tomi Aswari
ABSTRACT
Irena Tomi Aswari. 2010. C0305036. An Analysis of Refusal Expressions in “Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire” Film. (A Socio-Pragmatics Approach).
Thesis: English Department Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University.
The research entitled An Analysis of Refusal Expressions in “Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire” Film is a descriptive qualitative research using socio-pragmatics
approach. The source of data in this research is “Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire” film
and the data are the utterances containing refusal expression. The technique of collecting data was total sampling technique. This sampling technique took all of the data provided in the population as the sample of the study. This kind of sampling was used for the data going to be analyzed, which were the entire phenomena that match with the criterion of the field of the study. This research was conducted to describe the kinds of refusal expressions
employed by the characters in “Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire” film, how they express the refusal expression, and why they use such kind of way in
expressing the refusal. The results of the analysis can be seen as follows: first, there are eight kinds of refusal expression which are employed by the characters in the film, namely: be silent, hesitate, show lack of enthusiasm; offer an alternative; postponement (delaying answer); put the blame on third party or something over which you have no control; avoidance; divert and distract the addressee; direct refusal without reason; and direct refusal with reason. Second, the refusals utter ed by the characters in “Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire” film are expressed directly and indirectly. Third, there are several reasons
why the characters apply each kind of way to express the refusal. The reasons are to be polite and to show respect, to express feeling, to maintain a harmonious relationship, to convey the meaning of what one‟s says explicitly, and to increase the force of one‟s message.
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. Research Background
Language has an important role in our lives. It is used as a means of communication to communicate with others. By using language people can express their thought to each other in the form of ideas, information, or opinion, either concrete or abstract for the past and future (Effendi, 1990:11). People communicate with each other both directly and indirectly. It depends on the situation that they have to face. Besides, it is also influenced by the social status between the speaker and the interlocutor. They used different utterances in saying words in different situations. The different utterances also come when they face a situation in which they have to perform refusal.
Refusal is a speech act performed when people do not intend to accept an action. Refusal occurs when someone gives negative responses of what the speaker requests, demands, commands, offers, invites, and suggests. Refusal can
be expressed directly or indirectly. The direct refusal usually uses the word No; Sorry, I can‟t; No way; Absolutely not; and etc. The direct refusal is used when a
speaker wants to say explicitly that he/she does not accept an action, while the indirect refusal is used when a speaker does not want to go straight to give refusal responses since the expression has a possibility of offending the interlocutor.
Since refusal can risk interpersonal relations of the speaker, it includes some strategies to avoid offending the interlocutor. According to Joan Rubin, Since refusal can risk interpersonal relations of the speaker, it includes some strategies to avoid offending the interlocutor. According to Joan Rubin,
1. Be silent, hesitate, show lack of enthusiasm
2. Offer an alternative
3. Postponement ( delaying answer)
4. Put the blame on a third party or something over which you have no control
5. Avoidance
6. General acceptance of an offer but giving no details
7. Divert and distract the addressee
8. General acceptance with excuse
9. Say what is offered is inappropriate
The indirect refusal is considered more polite than the direct one. According to Jenny Thomas (1996:143), a variety of reasons has been put forward for the universal use of indirectness, including:
1. The desire to make one‟s language more/less interesting
2. To increase the force of one‟s message
3. Competing goal
4. Politeness/regard for face
Thomas (1996:124) also states that there are several factors which influence the speaker to use indirectness. The factors are:
1. The relative power of the speaker over the hearer
2. The social distance between the speaker and the hearer
3. The degree to which X is rated an imposition in culture Y
4. Relative rights and obligations between the speaker and the hearer
In this research, the researcher will analyze the refusal expression employed by the characters in “Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire” film.
Therefore, two examples of refusal expression employed in the film are included as follows:
1. The conversation occurs in Hogwarts. The pupils are going home. Hermione speaks to both of her closed friends, Harry and Ron. Hermione asks them to write her, but Ron refuses it.
HERMIONE
Promise you‟ll write this summer. Both of you
RON
Well, I won’t. You know I won’t
In this conversation, Ron refuses Hermione‟s demand directly by saying Well, I won‟t. You know I won‟t. Ron says the refusal directly since he wants to convey the meaning of what he says explicitly. Ron wants to convey Hermione In this conversation, Ron refuses Hermione‟s demand directly by saying Well, I won‟t. You know I won‟t. Ron says the refusal directly since he wants to convey the meaning of what he says explicitly. Ron wants to convey Hermione
2. The conversation occurs in Hogwarts. Harry is walking up some steps. He reaches the top and bumps into Cho who has come around the corner. Harry asks Cho whether she wants to go to the ball with him or not.
HARRY
Um. I was just wondering if maybe you
wanted to go to the ball with me.
CHO
Oh. Um. Harry I'm sorry but someone's
already asked me. And well I've said
I'll go with him.
Cho refuses Harry‟s request by saying Oh. Um. Harry I'm sorry but someone's already asked me. And well I've said I'll go with him . Cho refuses Harry‟s request indirectly by putting the blame on a third party. In this case she blames the condition that someone has already asked her before and she already has said that she will go with that person. In expressing the refusal, Cho says indirectly in order not to hurt Harry. By employing a polite way, Cho tries to achieve a goal to maintain a harmonious relationship with her friend, Harry.
Therefore, though the refusal contradicts with Harry‟s expectation, it still minimizes by Harry ‟ disappointment.
From those two examples, it can be seen that there are different refusal expressions employed by the characters in the film entitled “Harry Potter and the
Goblet of Fire”. The expressions are expressed directly and indirectly. Based on the phenomenon above, the researcher is encouraged to conduct a research about the use of refusal expressions in the film. Therefore, the title of this research is An
Analysis of Refusal Expressions in” Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire” film. (A Socio-Pragmatic Approach)
B. Problem Statements
Based on the research background, the problems of the research are as follows:
1. What are the kinds of refusal expressions employed by the characters in “Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire” film?
2. How do the characters in “Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire” film express the refusal expressions?
3. Why do the characters in “Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire” film use such kind of way in expressing refusal?
C. Research Objectives
Based on the problem statements above, the objectives of the research are as follows:
1. To find out the kinds of refusal expressions employed by the characters in “Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire” film.
2. To describe how the characters in “Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire” film express the refusal expressions.
3. To explain why the characters in “Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire” film use such kind of way in expressing refusal.
D. Research Limitation
The research focuses on the analysis of utterances containing refusal expressions employed by the characters in “Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire” film, how the characters express the refusal expressions and why they use such kind of way in expressing refusal.
E. Research Benefits
The research is expected to be beneficial for:
1. The Readers
It is hoped that this research will give more information to the readers about refusal expressions and also help them to understand more about refusal.
2. Other Researchers
It is expected that this research will give additional information for other researchers who want to make a research on the related field so that they can conduct more comprehensive research.
F. Research Methodology
This research is a descriptive qualitative research. Bodgan and Taylor in Moleong state that qualitative research is a research procedure which produces descriptive data in the form written or oral words of people and behavior which can be observed (Moleong, 2007:4). According to Surakhmad, descriptive method is a kind of research method using the technique of searching, collecting, classifying, analyzing the data, interpreting them and finally drawing conclusion (2004: 139).
The source of data in this research is “Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire” film and the data are the utterances containing refusal in the film. Further explanation of research methodology will be clarified in chapter III.
G. Thesis Organization
This thesis is organized by some chapters and items as follows:
CHAPTER I : INTRODUCTION consists of Research Background, Problem Statements, Research Objectives, Research Limitation, Research Benefits, Research Methodology, and Thesis Organization
CHAPTER II : LITERATURE REVIEW consists of Definition of Sociolinguistics, Ethnography of Communication,
Components of Speech, Social Dimension of Communication, Pragmatics, Speech Act, Direct and Indirect Speech Act, Refusal, Synopsis of the Film, and Reviews of Related Study.
CHAPTER III : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY consists of Type of Research, Data and Source of Data, Sample and Technique of Sampling, Equipments of Research, Technique of Collecting Data, Data Coding, and Technique of Analyzing Data
CHAPTER IV : ANALYSIS consists of Introduction to Analysis, Data Analysis, and Discussion
CHAPTER V : CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Sociolinguistics
1. The Definition of Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. Sociolinguistics is interested in explaining why people speak differently in the different social context and is concerned with identifying the social functions of language and the ways it is used to convey social meaning (Holmes, 1992:1). It can be said that sociolinguistics describes the relationship between language and society, the social functions of language and the way people use language in the different social context and speech community.
According to Hudson, sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to the society (1996:1). It is confirmed by Dell Hymes saying that sociolinguistics refers to correlation between language and societies, and between particular linguistics and social phenomena (1974:7).
Chaika defines sociolinguistics as the study of the way people use language in social interactions of all kinds (1994:2). Sociolinguistics examines how language works in any kinds of situation. Similarly, Wardhaugh also states that Sociolinguistics concerns with investigating the relationship between language and society with the goal being better understanding of the structure of language and of how languages function in communication (1998:12). It means that sociolinguistics is concerned with how people use language when they Chaika defines sociolinguistics as the study of the way people use language in social interactions of all kinds (1994:2). Sociolinguistics examines how language works in any kinds of situation. Similarly, Wardhaugh also states that Sociolinguistics concerns with investigating the relationship between language and society with the goal being better understanding of the structure of language and of how languages function in communication (1998:12). It means that sociolinguistics is concerned with how people use language when they
2. The Scope of Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics can be divided into two studies. They are macro sociolinguistics and micro sociolinguistics.
1. Macro Sociolinguistics
Macro sociolinguistics is a term used to cover secular linguistics, the sociology of language and other areas involving the study of relative large group of speakers (Trudgill, 1992:52). It emphasizes its study on the society that is in relatively large group of people or speakers of such language. Coulmas (1997:2) in Wardhaudh says that macro sociolinguistics studies what the societies do with their languages, that is, attitudes and attachments that account for the functional distribution of speech forms in society, language shift, maintenance, and replacement, the delimitation and interaction of speech communities (Wardhaugh, 1998:13).
2. Micro Sociolinguistics
Micro sociolinguistics is a term that covers the study of face to face interaction, discourse analysis, conversation analysis, and other areas of sociolinguistics involving the study of relatively small group of speakers (Trudgill, 1992:52). According to Coulmas in Wardhaugh, micro sociolinguistics investigates how social structure influences the way people talk and how language varieties and patterns of use correlate with social attributes such as class, sex and age (Wardhaugh, 1998:13).
B. Ethnography of Communication
1. The Definition of Ethnography Communication
The ethnography of communication studies the relationship between language and culture. It deals with language as a means of communication which is used in certain society considering the norms and the values applied in the community. According to Fasold, the ethnography of speaking or more generally the ethnography of communication is the approach to the sociolinguistics of language in which the use of language in general is related to the social culture (1990:39). Similarly, Hymes in Chaika defines the ethnography of communication as a study of the dynamics of communication between social groups (Chaika, 1994: 164).
2. Fundamental Concepts in Ethnography of Communication
In order to understand what ethnography of communication is all about, it is necessary to understand some fundamental concepts of ethnography of communication. They are speech community, speech situation, speech event and speech act.
a. Speech Community
The term speech community is usually used by a sociolinguist to refer to a community based on language. Dell Hymes defines the term of speech community as a community sharing knowledge of rules for conduct and interpretation of speech, rules for interpretation of at least one language variety (1974:51). Similarly, Coulthard also states that a speech community is any group which The term speech community is usually used by a sociolinguist to refer to a community based on language. Dell Hymes defines the term of speech community as a community sharing knowledge of rules for conduct and interpretation of speech, rules for interpretation of at least one language variety (1974:51). Similarly, Coulthard also states that a speech community is any group which
Peter Trudgill explains speech community as a community of speakers who share the verbal repertoire and who also share the same norms for linguistics behavior (1992:69). In this sense, a group of people belong to the same speech community if they speak the same language and the same norms of interaction an interpretation.
b. Speech Situation
Hymes (1974:51) describes speech situation as situations associated with or marked by the absence of speech. He gives the examples of speech situation such as ceremonies, fights, hunts, love making and etc. He also explains that speech situations are not purely communicative. They may be composed of both communicative and other kinds of events. Speech situation are not themselves subject of speaking, but can be referred to by rules of speaking as context (Fasold, 1990:42).
c. Speech Event
According to Hymes, the term speech event will be restricted to activities, or aspects of activities, that are directly governed by rules or norms for the use of speech (1974:52). A speech event takes place within a speech situation and is composed by one or more speech acts. For example, a joke might be a speech act that is part of a conversation (a speech event) which takes place at a party (a speech situation). (Fasold, 1990:42).
d. Speech act
Hymes in Fasold explains that speech act is to be distinguished from the sentence and is not to be identified with any unit at any level of grammar. For Hymes, speech act gets its status from the social context as well as grammatical form and intonation. The level of speech acts mediates immediately between the usual levels of grammar and the rest of a speech event or situation in that it implicates both linguistics form and social norms (Fasold, 1990:43).
Austin in Levinson (1983:236) states that all utterances in addition to meaning whatever they mean, perform specific action,(or „do thing‟) through
having specific forces. Then, he divides utterances into three kinds of acts that are simultaneously performed.
1. Locutionary act: the utterance of sentence with determinate sense and reference.
2. Illocutionary act: the making of a statement, offer, promise, etc in uttering a sentence, by virtue of the conventional force associated with it (or with its explicit performative paraphrase).
3. Perlocutionary act: the bringing about of the effects on the audience by means of uttering the sentence, such effects being special to the circumstances of utterance. To make clear the definition above, the example bellow may help to clarify:
A: Open the window!
B: OK The act of saying “Open the window” is the locutionary act. The act of
requesting B to open the window is the illocutionary act. Act of opening the requesting B to open the window is the illocutionary act. Act of opening the
C. Components of Speech
Hymes suggests that there are eight components of speech that the ethnographer should look for. Those are situation, participants, ends, act sequence, key, instrumentalities, norms and genres. All of them are known with one of
letters of the word “SPEAKING” formula. (Hymes, 1974:59-65)
a. Situation
The situation (S) consists of setting and scene that describes the conversation occurs. The setting refers to time and place or the concrete physical circumstances in which a speech takes place. The scene refers to the abstract psychological setting or cultural definition of an occasion as formal or informal, serious or festive.
b. Participants
Participants (P) are person or individual involving in a speech event. The participants consist of speaker-listener, addresser-addressee, or sender-receiver. It deals with who is speaking and who is speaker speaking to. Speaker, addresser and sender mean the people who deliver a message. Listener, addressee and receiver mean the person to whom the message is delivered.
c. Ends
Ends (E) means the purpose of an event. It can be divided into outcomes (the purpose of the event from social/ cultural point of view) and goals (the purpose of the individual participant). Outcomes that enter into the definition of speech event can be described as the purpose of speech based on the cultural point of view, e.g. trade, marriage contract, interview, etc. The goal of a speech is a purpose of each participant during communication. In other words, it can be seen as a negotiation among participants to make an agreement toward the topic discussed. Thus, there is a different goal of the participants.
d. Act sequence
Acts sequence (A) consists of message form (how something is said) and message content (what is said). Both message form and message content involve communicative skills that vary from one culture to another.
e. Key
Key (K) refers to the tone, manner, or spirit in which a speech is carried out, whether it is mock or serious, perfunctory or painstaking. In addition, key also refers to the feeling, atmosphere, and attitude. For better
understanding of the term “key”, the definition of “key” in details is given as follows:
Tone: the general spirit of the scene, such as brave, fierce, and fearful
Manner: the participant‟s way of behavior toward others, whether it is polite, impolite, intimate, distant, formal, informal, tense, relaxed, serious, mocking, respectful.
Feeling: the emotions indicating happiness, terror, excitability, anxiety, shock, desperation, anger, neutrality, irony, uncertainty, frustration, etc.
Atmosphere: the feeling that affects the mind in a place o condition, for example: good, evil, or solemn.
Attitude: the participant‟s ways of thinking and behaving toward a situation whether it is sympathetic, optimistic, pessimistic, resolute, serious, mocking, resentful, bitter, etc.
f. Instrumentalities
Instrumentalities (I) include both channel and form of speech. Hymes describes channel as the way in which a message travel from one person to another. The most commonly used channels are oral and written, but message can also be transmitted by such means of telegraph, smoke signals, semaphore, etc. Whereas, form of speech according to Hymes deals with language and their subdivisions such as dialects, codes, varieties, and register.
g. Norms
Norms (N) refers to the rules used within a conversation and interaction. There are two kinds of norm namely norm of interaction and Norms (N) refers to the rules used within a conversation and interaction. There are two kinds of norm namely norm of interaction and
h. Genre
Genre refers to the categories of the speech. It can be a poem, myths, tale, proverb, riddle, curse, prayer, oration, lecturer, commercial, form letter, editorial, etc. Genre often coincides with speech events, but may occur in more than one different event.
D. Social Dimension of Communication
Holmes (1992:376) states that there are four dimensions reflected during the process of communication, namely: social distance scale, status scale, formality scale, and function scale.
a. A Social distance scale concerned with participants relationships
The solidarity – Social distance scale Intimate/ close Distant High solidarity Low solidarity Dimension of social distance is a solidarity dimension taking account for pattern of linguistic interaction. The discussion of this dimension always connects with participant‟s relationship. It is useful in emphasizing that how well the participants know each other is one of the most important factors in affecting the The solidarity – Social distance scale Intimate/ close Distant High solidarity Low solidarity Dimension of social distance is a solidarity dimension taking account for pattern of linguistic interaction. The discussion of this dimension always connects with participant‟s relationship. It is useful in emphasizing that how well the participants know each other is one of the most important factors in affecting the
group language that identifies certain group difference, existence, or solidarity among the group members.
b. A Status scale concerned with participants relationship
The social status scale Superior High status Subordinate Lower status Other name of the dimension of status scale is the dimension of power scale of participants. Dimension of status or power scale is the dimension that accounts for a variety of linguistic differences in the way people speak (ibid, 378). People speak in a way which signals their status or power in a society.
c. A Formality scale relating to the setting or type of interaction
The Formality scale Formal
High formality
Low
Low formality
The formality dimension is the dimension that accounts for speech variation in different settings or contexts. This scale is useful in assessing the influence of the social setting or types of interaction on the language choices. People will choose a certain variety of linguistic choices in accordance with the context of setting communication takes place whether a formal or informal occasion. For example, in a law court, a very formal setting will influence the language used regardless of the personal relationship between the speakers. For The formality dimension is the dimension that accounts for speech variation in different settings or contexts. This scale is useful in assessing the influence of the social setting or types of interaction on the language choices. People will choose a certain variety of linguistic choices in accordance with the context of setting communication takes place whether a formal or informal occasion. For example, in a law court, a very formal setting will influence the language used regardless of the personal relationship between the speakers. For
d. Two Function scale relating to the purpose or topic of interaction
The Referential and affective function scale
Content The function of an interaction can also be an important influence on its linguistic form. The function dimension here covers referential meaning and affective social meaning. The two identified in this scale are particularly pervasive and basic. The linguistic features of a certain interaction with referential meaning are strongly influenced by the information they need to convey and it can express how someone is feeling. Many everyday interactions serve both an affective (or social) function and referential (informative) function. The weather forecast tends to put emphasis on information or the referential function. On the contrary, the interactions which are more concerned with expressing feeling often have a little space in the way of new information to communicate. Talk between neighbors over the fence at the weekend about the weather, for instance, is more likely to be
Content
mainly affective in function and intended to convey goodwill toward the neighbor rather than important new information.
E. Pragmatics
Yule (1996:3) defines pragmatics as the study of speaker‟s meaning and as the study of contextual meaning. As the study of speaker‟s meaning, pragmatics is
concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker (or writer) and interpreted by a listener (or reader). It analyzes more in what people mean by their utterances than what the words or phrases in those utterances might mean by themselves. While as the study of contextual meaning, pragmatics involves the interpretation of what people mean in a particular context and how the context influences what is said. It requires a consideration of how speakers organize what they want to say in accordance with who they are talking to, where, when, and under what circumstances.
Thomas (1995:22) states that pragmatics focuses almost exclusively on the process of interpretation from the point of view of the hearer. The speaker and the hearer will have a good communication if the hearer comprehends what the speaker intends. While Richards in Kuncana Rahardi (2002: 5) defines that pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly in the relationship between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Therefore, both of the speaker and the hearer need to understand the context of situation to avoid misinterpretation between them.
F. Speech Acts
Actions performed via utterances are generally called speech acts (Yule, 1996:47). In Speech Act Theory (Austin 1962), an act refers to the action that is performed in making an utterance. Utterances are taken in isolation and the kind of speech act being performed is determined by considerations like the meaning conveyed by the words and the structures of utterances, the psychological conditions of the speaker and so forth (Tsui, 1994:9).
Speech acts can be classified into five categories. They are declarations, representatives, expressives, directives, and commissives. (Yule. 1996:53-54)
1. Declarations
Declarations are those kinds of speech acts that change the world via their utterance. The speaker has to have a special institutional role, in a specific context, in order to perform a declaration appropriately. In using a declaration, the speaker changes the world via words. For example:
a. Priest: I now pronounce you husband and wife
b. Referee: you‟re out!
c. Jury Foreman: We find the defendant guilty.
2. Representatives
Representatives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker believes to be the case or not. Statements of fact, assertions, conclusions, and descriptions are the examples of representatives. In using
a representative, the speaker makes words fit the world (of belief).
For example:
a. The earth is flat.
b. Chomsky didn‟t write about peanuts.
c. It was a warm sunny day
3. Expressives
Expressives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker feels. They express psychological states and can be statements of pleasure, pain, likes, dislikes, joy, or sorrow. They can be caused by something the speaker does or the hearer does, but they are about the
speaker‟s experience. In using an expressive, the speaker makes words fit the world (of feeling). For example;
a. I‟m really sorry!
b. Congratulations!
c. Oh, yes, great, mmmm, ssahh!
4. Directives
Directives are those kinds of speech acts that the speakers use to get someone else to do something. They express what the speaker wants. They are commands, orders, requests, suggestions, and they can be positive or negative. In using a directive, the speaker attempts to make the world fit the words (via the hearer). For example:
a. Give me a cup of coffee! Make it black!
b. Could you lend me a pen, please? b. Could you lend me a pen, please?
5. Commisives
Commisives are those kinds of speech acts that the speakers use to commit themselves to some future action. They express what the speaker intends. They are promises, threats, refusals, pledges. They can be performed by the speaker alone or by the speaker as a member of a group. In using a commissive, the speaker undertakes to make the world fit the words (via the speaker).
For example:
a. I‟ll be back.
b. I‟m going to get it right next time
c. We will not do that.
G. Direct and Indirect Speech Acts
Yule (1996:54-55) states that direct speech act occurs when there is a direct relationship between a structure and a function. While indirect speech act occurs when there is an indirect relationship between a structure and a function. For example: When a speaker says It‟s cold outside, it can be a direct and indirect speech act. When the speaker just wants to tell the hearer about the weather, the statement functions as direct speech act. But when the speaker wants to request or commands the hearer, the statement function as indirect speech act.
Indirect speech acts are generally associated with greater politeness in English than direct speech acts. According to Jenny Thomas (1995:143), a variety of reasons have been put forward for the universal use of indirectness. They are:
1. The desire to make one’s language more/less interesting.
Interestingness is probably the least significant of the reason. Nevertheless, its importance should not be underestimated. People may use indirectness because they enjoy having fun with language.
2. To increase the force of one’s message
People can increase the impact or effectiveness of their message by employing indirectness. For example:
There is a weekly section in the guardian newspaper where readers‟ questions are answered by other readers. The responses may be serious or humorous. Q: It is really feasible that a chimpanzee with a type-writer and an infinite amount of time will be able to produce the complete works of Shakespeare?
A: Quite probably. After all, he‟s already produced the national Curriculum.
(taken from Jenny Thomas page 144) The response is employed indirectly. It emphasizes that a chimpanzee is
impossible to produce the complete work of Shakespeare. By saying quite probably , the speaker makes the answer very contrast with the true answer. He also exaggerates his comment that the chimpanzee will produce National Curriculum. If the response is said directly by saying no, it is not feasible or no, a chimpanzee can‟t do it, the sense is different from the response said indirectly. On
the conversation above, indirectness gives a greater effect in increasing the force of one‟s message.
3. Competing goals.
Pyle in Thomas says that we often employ indirectness because we have two goals which compete. The goals are different and depended on the context. For example, if a teacher has to tell that a stu dent‟s work is not up to standard, the teacher‟s need/duty to tell the truth may conflict with the desire not to hurt the student‟s feeling or discourage him or her. He may say “Why does your work not give a new idea?” The goals in this case are that the teacher tries to detect the student‟s problem and the teacher actually wants the student to do a better work.
4. Politeness /regard for face.
Politeness is the respect shown to other people by virtue of their higher status, greater age, etc. People need to not ice individual‟s feeling of self worth or self image. Therefore, they need to consider their language and social behavior. For example, if we request someone to do something, we can use the word „please‟ in order to create a polite sense. The word please often increases politeness of someone‟s utterance.
Thomas (1995, 124) also states that there are several factors which influence the speaker to use indirectness. They are:
1. The relative power of the speaker over the hearer
The general point is that we tend to use a greater degree of indirectness with people who have some powers or authorities than to those who do not. Power can be classified into:
a. Legitimate power.
Legitimate power means someone‟s power over the other person by virtue of role, age or status.
For example:
Kate has been living with her lover for seven years. Now, she intends to move out and take Joss, her daughter, with her. “I don‟t want to,” Joss said. “Right? You can do whatever bloody stupid thing you want, but you‟re not making me do it too. I‟m not coming.”
“You have to,” Kate said. “You‟re under sixteen and you‟re my daughter, and you have to come and live with me.”
(taken from Jenny Thomas page 127) In the example above, Kate has a legitimate power. She makes it clear that she has the power to make Joss move by virtue of being Joss‟s
mother.
b. Referent power. Referent power means someone‟s power over the other because the other
person admires and wants to be like him or her in some respect.
c. Expert power.
Expert power means someone‟s power over the other because he has some special knowledge or expertise which the other person needs. For example, if an individual has great expertise in computing, he or she may have considerable power over someone who desperately needs to draw on that knowledge.
2. The social distance between the speaker and the hearer
According to Leech in Thomas, the term social distance is seen as a composite of psychologically real factors (status, age, sex, degree of intimacy, etc). If you feel close to someone because that person is related to you or you According to Leech in Thomas, the term social distance is seen as a composite of psychologically real factors (status, age, sex, degree of intimacy, etc). If you feel close to someone because that person is related to you or you
she knows very well, she will say it directly “Got change of fifty pence, DB?” But, when she says it to a complete stranger (a man considerably older than she
was), she will say it indirectly “Excuse me, could you change fifty pence for me? I need teens or fives for the coffee machine?”
3. Size of Imposition
Size of imposition means the degree of request that you make. For example, you would probably use a greater degree of indirectness in asking to borrow ten pounds than ten pence. And you would probably use a greater degree of indirectness in requesting someone to translate an article for you than in requesting someone to pass you the newspaper.
4. Relative rights and obligations between the speaker and the hearer
Rights and obligations explain a situation in which a speech act involving
a major imposition is performed with a minimal degree of indirectness. For example, two elderly women are traveling on a country bus service. On country routes, the driver stops only when he is requested to do so. The first woman wants to get off at scheduled stopping place. As the bus approaches it, she simply says
“Next stop, driver!” Meanwhile, the second woman wants to get off where there is no official stop. She asks the driver “Do you think you could possibly let me out just beyond the traffic lights, please?” In the first case the woman uses indirect speech act because the driver has obligation to stop. Whereas in the second case, “Next stop, driver!” Meanwhile, the second woman wants to get off where there is no official stop. She asks the driver “Do you think you could possibly let me out just beyond the traffic lights, please?” In the first case the woman uses indirect speech act because the driver has obligation to stop. Whereas in the second case,
H. Refusal
Refusal is a speech act performed when people do not intend to accept an action. Refusal occurs when someone gives negative responses of what the speaker requests, demands, commands, offers, invites, and suggests. Refusal can
be expressed directly or indirectly. Refusal is a face-threatening act to the listener/requester/inviter, because it contradicts his or her opinion, and is often realized through indirect strategies (Chen, 1996). The appropriate manner is needed since refusal is an expression that is different from the hearer‟s expectation. According to Kwon, refusals can be tricky speech acts to perform linguistically and psychologically since the possibility of offending the interlocutor is inherent in the act itself (Kwon, 2004). Since refusal can risk interpersonal relations of the speaker, it includes some strategies to avoid offending the interlocutor.
Rubin in Wolfson (1983:10) states that one needs to be able to recognize that a respondent has refused what the speaker has demanded, solicited, or offered. Based on his classification, there are nine ways of expressing “no” as the
strategies of refusal. He divides the expression into nine strategies as follows:
1. Be silent, hesitate, show lack of enthusiasm
In many cultures in the world, being silent is a way of refusing an offer or an invitation or of giving an answer. For example : - When you were asked whether you liked a movie or a dress, be silent
- If you receive a written invitation, don‟t answer (taken from Wolfson page 10)
2. Offer an alternative
In some cases, in order to offend or to direct the conversation away from the request, the addressee may divert attention by suggesting an alternative. For example:
A: What time should we meet? Around 5?
B: I‟m sorry I can‟t. How about 4:30? Data Interpretation: The conversation happens between A and B. A asks B what time they
should meet. A suggests how about if they meet around 5. B firstly refuses A‟s suggestion directly by saying I‟m sorry I can‟t. But, to avoid offending A, B refuses A by offering alternative. He offers what time they can meet by saying How about at 4?
3. Postponement ( delaying answer)
In responding a request or an invitation, it can be expressed by postponement or delaying the answer. The speaker gives an expectation to the hearer that a request or an invitation or a suggestion will be done on the next time. For example:
A: Can you come to my house this evening?
B: Not today, next time. I‟ll let you know.
Data Interpretation:
B refuses the request from A by saying not today, next time. I‟ll let you know . It means that B will come someday. B gives an expectation by delaying his action. He expresses the refusal indirectly in order to show politeness toward A and to avoid offending A.
4. Put the blame on a third party or something over which you have no control
One of the strategies of refusing a request, an invitation, an offer, a command, and a suggestion is by blaming on the third party or something over which you have no control. For example:
A: How about if we have dinner?
B: I‟m not hungry Data Interpretation:
B expresses the refusal indirectly to show regard to the inviter. The strategy of refusing an invitation is applied by blaming the third party. In this case, by saying I‟m not hungry; B blames his condition that is not hungry as the reason why B refuses the invitation.
5. Avoidance
One way to answer an offer is to avoid responding directly. For example:
A: Do you want a cup of tea?
B: I like coffee more Data Interpretation:
A offers a cup of tea to B. But, B answers I like coffee more. By saying I like coffee more , it means that B avoids responding directly in order not to hurt
A‟s feeling. B actually does not like what A offers. He prefers coffee than tea. In this case, B refuses the offer through indirect utterance.
6. General acceptance of an offer but giving no details
- In the United States, “drop in time” is generally not taken as an invitation. - In Arabic-speaking countries, when someone says InsyaAllah, the
utterance is included to refusal. Meanwhile, when someone says InsyaAllah with plus time or detail, it means an acceptance.
7. Divert and distract the addressee
One strategy to refuse a request, a command, an invitation, an offer, or a suggestion is by diverting or distracting the utterance to the addressee. For example:
A: I want you out from my apartment. Now, today, before I get home from work.
B: Where I‟m supposed to go? Data Interpretation:
A commands B to leave his apartment. But B refuses it by applying an indirect way. By saying Where I‟m supposed to go? B diverts A in interrogative form. The way B expresses refusal is by saying a question aimed to A. B does not want to leave A‟s apartment because there is no place to go. By diverting A, B intends to make A pity him.
8. General acceptance with excuse