Teacher`s beliefs about teaching English to young learners in primary school: a study of classroom practice.

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xvii ABSTRACT

Vivi Muryanti. 2016. Teachers’ Beliefs about Teaching English to Young Learners in Primary School: A Study of Classroom Practice. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

An English lesson should be organized in such a way to optimize the English teaching and learning process. The organization of the English lesson is mainly the result of what are believed by the teachers. Therefore, the teachers‟ beliefs are significant in the English teaching and learning process since they will greatly influence the teachers‟ practices in the classroom. Particularly in teaching English to young learners in primary school, the teachers‟ beliefs are expected to be suitable with the special characteristics of the young learners which are different with adolescent or adult learners. By having such kind of beliefs, the English teachers in primary school have the great opportunities to optimize the teaching and learning process for the young learners. Referring to the importance of the teachers‟ beliefs above, this research aims to answer the research question: What are the teachers‟ beliefs about teaching English to young learners in primary school based on their classroom practices?

In order to achieve the aim of this research, the qualitative method was applied. The qualitative method was chosen because this method enabled the researcher to provide a detailed understanding of actions, intentions, and behaviours in a particular setting and also gave voices to the participants to describe their interpretations in identifying the beliefs of the teachers which underlie the teachers‟ actions and attitudes in the primary classroom. Furthermore, the focus group discussion was used as the data gathering technique in this research in order to gain deep and insightful ideas from the participants about the topic of this research. After that, the results of the focus group discussion were presented narratively and interpreted by using the principles of TEYL and theories of belief.

As the findings of this research, twenty-six beliefs of the teachers have been identified by the participants. Furthermore, those twenty-six beliefs of the teachers are classified into three areas of beliefs, namely beliefs about English language, beliefs about language learning, and beliefs about language teaching. Based on the classification, there are five beliefs about language (English), nine beliefs about language learning, and twelve beliefs about language teaching. In addition, the beliefs in the three areas are interpreted based on the principles of TEYL and theories of beliefs. Based on the principles of TEYL, most of the teachers‟ beliefs are linear or suitable to the principles of TEYL which means that the teachers‟ beliefs are suitable and beneficial to teach English to young learners. Meanwhile, based on the theories of beliefs, three results of interpretation are obtained. First, the teachers‟ beliefs about language are based on the structural view. Second, the teachers‟ beliefs about language learning are based on the view of language learning as the process which should be supported by suitable condition for the learning process to happen. Finally, about language teaching, the teachers believe that teaching is a transmission of knowledge and management of learning.

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xviii

Key words: teacher‟s beliefs, young learner in primary school, TEYL, classroom practice

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xix ABSTRAK

Vivi Muryanti. 2016. Teachers’ Beliefs about Teaching English to Young Learners in Primary School: A Study of Classroom Practice. Yogyakarta: Program Pasca Sarjana Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Setiap pelajaran Bahasa Inggris harus disusun sedemikian rupa untuk mencapai proses mengajar dan belajar yang optimal. Pengorganisasian pelajaran Bahasa Inggris pada dasarnya merupakan hasil dari apa yang diyakini oleh para guru. Oleh karena itu, keyakinan para guru sangat mendasar dalam proses mengajar dan belajar Bahasa Inggris karena keyakinan tersebut sangat berpengaruh besar terhadap tindakan-tindakan para guru di dalam kelas. Terutama dalam mengajarkan Bahasa Inggris kepada para pembelajar muda di sekolah dasar, keyakinan para guru hendaknya sesuai dengan karakteristik-karakteristik istimewa dari para pembelajar muda tersebut yang berbeda dengan para pembelajar remaja dan dewasa. Dengan memiliki keyakinan-keyakinan yang sesuai tersebut, para guru di sekolah dasar mempunyai kesempatan yang besar untuk mengoptimalkan proses belajar dan mengajar untuk para pembelajar muda. Dengan mempertimbangkan pentingnya peranan keyakinan para guru, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menjawab pertanyaan berikut: ”Apa saja keyakinan-keyakinan para guru tentang mengajar Bahasa Inggris kepada para pembelajar muda di sekolah dasar berdasarkan tindakan-tindakan kelas para guru tersebut?”

Guna mencapai tujuan yang dikehendaki, penelitian ini menerapkan metode kualitatif. Metode kualitatif ini digunakan karena metode ini memungkinkan peneliti untuk memberikan pengertian mendalam tentang segala tindakan, maksud, dan perilaku pada tempat atau keadaan tertentu, serta memberikan kesempatan pada para partisipan untuk menyampaikan interpretasi mereka tentang keyakinan-keyakinan para guru yang mendasari tindakan-tindakan dan sikap-sikap mereka di dalam kelas. Kemudian, diskusi grup terfokus digunakan sebagai teknik pengumpulan data dalam penelitian ini guna memperoleh pendapat-pendapat yang mendalam dan mendasar dari para partisipan tentang topik yang diteliti. Setelah itu, hasil-hasil dari diskusi grup terfokus tersebut disajikan secara naratif and diinterpretasikan berdasarkan prinsip-prinsip mengajarkan Bahasa Inggris kepada pembelajar muda dan juga berdasarkan teori-teori tentang keyakinan.

Sebagai hasil dari penelitian ini, dua puluh enam keyakinan guru teridentifikasi oleh para partisipan. Lebih lanjut, kedua puluh enam keyakinan guru itu diklasifikasikan ke dalam tiga area keyakinan. Hasil yang didapat dari pengklasifikasian tersebut, terdapat lima keyakinan tentang bahasa (Bahasa Inggris), sembilan keyakinan tentang pembelajaran bahasa, dan dua belas keyakinan tentang pengajaran Bahasa Inggris. Selain itu, keyakinan-keyakinan dalam ketiga area tersebut diinterpretasikan berdasarkan prinsip-prinsip pengajaran Bahasa Inggris kepada pembelajar muda (TEYL) dan juga berdasarkan teori-teori tentang keyakinan. Berdasarkan prinsip-prinsip TEYL, hampir semua keyakinan guru tersebut sejalan atau sesuai dengan prinsip-prinsip TEYL yang berarti bahwa keyakinan-keyakinan para guru tersebut sesuai dan menguntungkan untuk mengajarkan Bahasa Inggris kepada para pembelajar muda. Sementara itu,

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berdasarkan teori-teori keyakinan, diperoleh beberapa hasil interpretasi sebagai berikut. Pertama, keyakinan para guru tentang bahasa (bahasa Inggris) berdasarkan pandangan struktural. Kedua, keyakinan para guru tentang pembelajaran bahasa berdasarkan pada pandangan bahwa pembelajaran bahasa adalah sebuah proses yang harus didukung kondisi yang sesuai agar proses pembelajaran dapat terjadi. Terakhir, tentang pengajaran bahasa, guru-guru tersebut meyakini bahwa pengajaran adalah sebuah proses pemindahan pengetahuan dan manajemen pembelajaran.

Kata-kata kunci: keyakinan guru, pembelajar muda di sekolah dasar, TEYL, tindakan kelas

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TEACHERS‟ BELIEFS ABOUT TEACHING ENGLISH

TO YOUNG LEARNERS IN PRIMARY SCHOOL:

A STUDY OF CLASSROOM PRACTICE

A Thesis Presented to

The Graduate Program in English Language Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of

Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.) in

English Language Studies

by Vivi Muryanti

136332012

Sanata Dharma University Yogyakarta

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TEACHERS‟ BELIEFS ABOUT TEACHING ENGLISH TO YOUNG LEARNERS IN PRIMARY SCHOOL:

A STUDY OF CLASSROOM PRACTICE

A Thesis Presented to

The Graduate Program in English Language Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of

Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.) in

English Language Studies

by Vivi Muryanti

136332012

Sanata Dharma University Yogyakarta

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if I took somebody else's ideas, phra*es, or *enteuccs withsut prop€r reference.

Yogyakarta, July 18, 2016

&

Vivi Muryaa

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DEDICATION PAGE

This thesis is dedicated to:

Jesus Christ (my Saviour)

Then Tjhung Fat (my beloved father)

Murjana Burhan (my beloved mother)

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LEMBAR PER}I YATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIK

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:

Nama

: Vivi Muryanti Nomor

Mahasiswa

: 136332012

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

TEACHERS' BELIEtr'S ABOUT TEACHING ENGLISH

TO YOUNG LEARNERS IN PRIMARY SCHOOL:

A STUDY OF CLASSROOM PRACTICE

Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian, saya memberikan

kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan,

mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin ataupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan rulma saya sebagai penulis. Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

Dibuat di: Yogyakarta

Pada tanggal: 28 Juli 2016

Yang menyatakan

A,A

Z-'

Vivi Muryanti

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vii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First of all, I would like to grant my deepest gratefulness to Jesus Christ for everything that He has done in my life especially during my study in this graduate program. All happens because of His never-ending grace and never-failing love.

Then, my greatest gratitude is addressed to F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D, my thesis advisor, for his helps and guidance through the completion of this thesis. In addition, my great appreciation is addressed to my thesis reviewers, Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A. and Dr. E. Sunarto, M.Hum. for their careful reading and insightful suggestions to my thesis. My gratitude also goes to all my lecturers: Dr. J. Bismoko, Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A., P. Sarwoto, S.S., M.A., Ph.D., Widya Kiswara, M.Hum., and Josephine Sri Murwani, M.Hum., for the enlightening knowledge given to me during my study. My gratefulness also goes to Mbak Marni and Pak Mul for their sincere helps during my days at campus.

In addition, I would like also to express my appreciation to all my friends in KBI for the precious sharing moments. Next, my special thank goes to Kristin, Joan, Bundo Wulan, Sir Ryan, Anin, Marita, Caca, Ulan, Rini, Putri, Paus, and Adri for being with me through the hard time. Then, I am also deeply indebted to all my participants for the nice discussions and sincere helps given to me within the data collection process.

Last but not least, I owe special thanks to my parents, my brothers, my sister in law, my cute nephews, and my big family in Pangkalpinang for their unconditional love and support during my study. May God always bless them all!

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viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ... i

ADVISOR‟S APPROVAL PAGE ... ii

THESIS COMMITTEE‟S APPROVAL PAGE ... iii

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ... iv

DEDICATION PAGE ... v

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ... vi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ... vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... viii

LIST OF TABLES ... xii

LIST OF FIGURES ... xiii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ... xiv

LIST OF APPENDICES ... xv

LIST OF CODES ... xvi

ABSTRACT ... xvii

ABSTRAK ... xix

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A.RESEARCH BACKGROUND ... 1

B.PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION ... 6

C.PROBLEM LIMITATION ... 7

D.PROBLEM FORMULATION ... 8

E. RESEARCH GOALS ... 9

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ix CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

A. THEORETICAL REVIEW ... 11

1. Teachers‟ Beliefs ... 11

a. Definition of teachers‟ beliefs ... 12

b. Sources of teachers‟ beliefs ... 14

c. Areas of teachers‟ beliefs ... 16

1) Beliefs about language ... 18

2) Beliefs about learning ... 19

3) Beliefs about teaching ... 20

2. Teaching English to Young Learners in Primary School ... 21

a. Definition of young learners in primary school ... 21

b. Characteristics of young learners in primary school ... 22

c. Principles of teaching English to young learners in primary schools ... 26

3. Classroom Practice ... 30

a. Role of learners, teachers, and materials ... 31

b. Teaching activity ... 33

1) Lesson structure ... 33

2) Teaching technique ... 36

3) Classroom management ... 38

c. Teaching media ... 41

1) Flashcards ... 41

2) Songs ... 43

3) Games ... 45

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4. Teachers‟ Beliefs and Classroom Practice ... 50

B. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ... 51

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY A. RESEARCH METHOD ... 55

B. RESEARCH PROCEDURE ... 56

C.RESEARCH OBJECT ... 59

D.DATA ... 59

1. Nature of Data... 59

2. Sources of Data ... 60

a. Participants ... 60

b. Settings ... 61

E. DATA GATHERING ... 62

F. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION ... 63

G.TRUSTWORTHINESS ... 64

CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS A.RESULTS ... 66

1. The Role of Learners, Teachers, and Materials. ... 66

a. The role of learners ... 67

b. The role of teachers ... 73

c. The role of materials ... 76

2. Teaching Activity ... 79

a. Lesson structure ... 80

b. Teaching technique ... 85

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3. Teaching Media ... 94

a. Flashcards ... 94

b. Songs ... 95

c. Games ... 99

4. Teachers‟ Use of Language ... 101

B. DISCUSSIONS ... 104

1. Summary of the Teachers‟ Belief ... 104

2. Classification of the Teachers‟ Beliefs ... 110

a. Teachers‟ beliefs about language ... 110

b. Teachers‟ beliefs about language learning ... 111

c. Teachers‟ beliefs about language teaching ... 111

3. Interpretation of the Teachers‟ Beliefs ... 112

a. The interpretation of teachers‟ beliefs based on theories of TEYL ... 112

b. The interpretation of teachers‟ beliefs based on theories of beliefs ... 115

1) Teachers‟ beliefs about language ... 115

2) Teachers‟ beliefs about language learning ... 116

3) Teachers‟ beliefs about language teaching ... 116

CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS A. CONCLUSIONS ... 118

B. IMPLICATIONS ... 121

C. RECOMMENDATIONS ... 122

BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 124

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xii

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 2.1: CHARACTERISTIC OF YOUNG CHILDREN IN

PRIMARY SCHOOL...……… 25

TABLE 2.2: CHARACTERISTICS OF YOUNG CHILDREN AS

LANGUAGE LEARNERS ... ……… 26

TABLE 3.1: INFORMATION ABOUT THE PARTICIPANTS... 61

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xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 2.1: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK... 53 FIGURE 3.1: RESEARCH PROCEDURE ... 57

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xiv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

TEYL : teaching English to young learner FGD : focus group discussion

YLs : young learners

CPH : critical period hypothesis ELT : English language teaching ESL : English as Second Language EFL : English as Foreign Language AFTA : Asian free trade area

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1 The Transcript of Video-Recording ... 128

Appendix 2 The Transcript of FGD 1 ... 137

Appendix 3 The Transcript of FGD 2 ... 163

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xvi

LIST OF CODES

A1 = Appendix 1

A2 = Appendix 2

A3 = Appendix 3

P1 = Participant 1 P2 = Participant 2 P3 = Participant 3 P4 = Participant 4

R = Researcher

Example : A2/18/P1

A2 = Appendix 2

18 = Exchange no.18

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xvii ABSTRACT

What are the teachers‟ beliefs about teaching English to young learners in

primary school based on their classroom practices?

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xviii

Key words: teacher‟s beliefs, young learner in primary school, TEYL, classroom practice

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xix ABSTRAK

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Kata-kata kunci: keyakinan guru, pembelajar muda di sekolah dasar, TEYL, tindakan kelas

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1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This research attempts to identify the beliefs of English teachers who teach in primary schools about teaching English to young learners. Related to the topic of the research, this introductory chapter discusses the worldwide trend of teaching English to young learners particularly to primary students and the importance of the study about teachers‟ beliefs that are formulated in the research background. In addition, the problem identification, the problem limitation, the statement of research question, the research goals and the research benefits are also discussed in this chapter respectively.

A.RESEARCH BACKGROUND

Globalization brings impacts to many fields of life including the education field. One of its impacts on education field in all over the world is the teaching of foreign languages in schools and colleges. As a language that is acknowledged as global language, English is the main foreign language which is taught in many countries around the world. Furthermore, as the world recognizes its increasing importance and demands, English is taught at younger and younger age nowadays (Emery, 2012:3; Butler, 2014:3). In some English non-speaking countries, it is taught from elementary levels and in some other countries, it is even taught from kindergarten levels (Papp, 2011 in Emery, 2012:4). This trend can be traced by the increasing numbers of bilingual or international schools all over the world which use English as the medium of instruction for some or all of the lessons.

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The trend of teaching English at younger years has attracted much interest of many researchers all over the world. As remarked by Copland and Garton, the teaching English to young learners (YLs) has become the emphasis of significant European and global studies, and also the “focus of numerous ELT professional development networks and forums around the world” (2014:223). Various key issues in the fields, various contexts of learning, various approaches, and even various classroom practices are investigated to highlight the significance of teaching English to young learners (YLs).

One of the fundamental issues that have been discussed broadly is the underlying factor that leads the trend of teaching English to YLs. In one of her studies, Butler remarked that the important role of English in leading the success in twenty-first century has become the main reason for many countries in East Asia to put special attention on English teaching (2014:3). Furthermore, she also emphasized that this trend is based on common belief which considers early English teaching to be significantly beneficial (2014:4). This belief is usually related with the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) in language acquisition. The advocates of CPH proposed that there is time limitation for human in acquiring second or foreign languages which is before puberty. By referring to this hypothesis, many people believe that by teaching English to younger children will provide extra time for the children to master the native-like English during the critical period (best time for the children to acquire languages). Although this belief is still widely debated among many researchers, many people decide to take advantage of the critical period by introducing English at younger and younger age.

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For Indonesian context, Septy (2000:10) proposes three reasons that underlie English language teaching in primary schools in Indonesia namely ideological, theoretical, and practical reasons. The ideological reasons are influenced by three factors. First factor is National Education System Act which implements the English curriculum that is linked to include English language teaching (ELT) in both primary and lower secondary schools as a continuum to higher education. Second factor is the second Long Term Development Plan which emphasizes on human resources development. Related with the implementation of Asian Free Trade Area (AFTA), English is considered as an important instrument to develop the quality of human resources in Indonesia to compete better in the AFTA. Finally, the third factor is the Regional Autonomy Policy that empowers every region to direct the objective and practice of its English language teaching (ELT). As the result, many regions decide to introduce English in primary schools as an elective and local content subject.

Meanwhile, the other reason that underlies English language teaching in primary schools in Indonesia is known as the theoretical reason. This reason is related to the benefit of young age in learning foreign language. It is believed that the younger learner of a foreign language can produce the language better (Septy, 2000:5). This reason is based on theories proposed by Richard (1987) and Bialystok and Hakuta (1999) that younger learner has better capacities in learning a language (in Septy, 2000:6).

Finally, the last underlying reason of English language teaching in primary schools in Indonesia proposed by Septy is the practical reason. This reason refers to the familiarizing of the foreign language to young learners. Furthermore, this

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reason is based on language transfer theory which states that second or foreign language (L2) can be learnt easier by applying first language (L1) system in the process of learning (Ellis, 1994; Gass and Selinker, 1994 in Septy, 2000: 6).

Based on the explanation above, it can be inferred that the trend of teaching English to young learners still requires many studies about its significant roles in improving the quality of English language teaching all around the world. Besides, there are still many questionable sides of this trend to be applied optimally around the world particularly to the countries where English is still a foreign language. In addition, there are also many interesting things about this trend that can be studied further. Taking for example, how this trend really works in ESL or EFL contexts and how far it contributes to the development of ELT related with the mastery of English which finally leads to the improvement of life quality.

Related to the trend and its questionable sides being explained above, this research attempts to discover the beliefs of Indonesian English teachers in primary schools about teaching English to young learners. The study of belief is important since it is the “basisof many decisions, choices, and actions of individuals” (Borg, 2001 in Uztosun, 2013:20). Meanwhile, the teachers‟ beliefs are important to be studied since what a teacher perceives or believes about teaching and learning will greatly contribute to their teaching (Doyle, Goh, & Zhang, 2004:1). In addition, the understanding of teachers‟ beliefs can give significant insight about some aspects in the professional world of teachers (Gahin, 2001 in Uztosun, 2013:20). Furthermore, Wedel (2009) also remarked that teachers‟ beliefs are important to be studied since they have significant roles in the change of the educational system (in Uztosun, 2013:20). Based on the explanation above, it can be inferred

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that the study of beliefs particularly teachers‟ beliefs are significant to be conducted since teachers‟ beliefs have important roles in leading the educational system to a better direction.

In the consideration of its significance, the study of teachers‟ belief in all educational levels has attracted the interests of many researchers for almost two decades. However, there are not many studies on teachers‟ beliefs which connected to the practices in the real classroom. Most of the studies on teachers‟ beliefs and classroom practices only use questionnaires and interviews in obtaining the data (Richards, Gallo & Renandya, 2001 in Farrell & Ives, 2015) and only few studies combine the questionnaires and interviews with classroom observation (Kuzborska, 2011 in Farrell & Ives, 2015).

The study of this research tries to acknowledge the teachers‟ beliefs by doing observation on their practices in the real classroom. Merriam (2001) remarked that the classroom observation enables the observers to understand the beliefs by using their own perspectives and evidences in the classroom rather than using the information from the teachers‟ perspective (in Farrell & Ives, 2015). Moreover, teachers‟ thinking process (teachers‟ beliefs) is closely related with their actions whose effects can be observed (Clark and Peterson, 1986 in Uztosun, 2013:22). This significant relationship between teachers‟ beliefs and practices is also supported by some researchers (Bai & Ertmer, 2004; Johnson, 1992; Mori, 2002; Woods, 1991 in Uztosun, 2013:22). Furthermore, some experts stated that the teachers‟ beliefs decide their practises (Bandura, 1986: Nespor, 1987; Pajares, 1992; Richards, 1998 in Uztosun, 2013:22). Based on the explanation above, this study will focus its attention on the objective investigation to what actually

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happens in the real classroom and what beliefs inferred by the practices of the teachers seen from the observers‟ perspective.

B.PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

Despite many advantages that become the underlying reasons for teaching English at younger age in all over the world, this trend actually brings about some fundamental problems. As what remarked by Emery, the two mainly problems faced by many countries in teaching English to primary schools are teacher shortages and overcrowded classrooms (2012:4). These two problems surely affect the quality of English teaching and learning wherever they exist. The similar problems also recognized by Copland and Garton (2014) related to the trend of teaching English to primary students. According to them, one of the problems in applying the policies of early language learning is the lack of primary school teachers with an English specialism (Copland and Garton, 2014:225).

As widely acknowledged, the language learning in EFL context mostly takes place in schools. In many countries around the world (including in Indonesia), homeroom teachers (or class teachers) in primary schools must teach almost all school subjects. It means that English also have to be taught by homeroom teachers. Meanwhile, many homeroom teachers do not have sufficient knowledge and competence in teaching English. In many countries, the primary schools then have to hire English teachers of higher levels or English „native speakers‟ to teach their primary students. One of the continuing consequences of competent English teachers‟ shortage is the overcrowded classrooms for English lessons (Emery, 2012:4).

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Related to the problem being introduced above (particularly the overcrowded English classrooms due to the shortage of competent English teachers), English lesson should be organized in such a way to optimize the English teaching and learning process. The organization of the English lesson is mainly the result of what are believed by the teachers. Therefore, the teachers‟ beliefs are significant in the English teaching and learning process since they will greatly influence the teachers‟ practices in the classroom.

In addition, the overcrowded English classrooms in primary levels are very disadvantageous related to the special characteristics of the young children compared with the adolescents or the adults. The English teachers should articulate their beliefs appropriately with the characteristics of young learners in order to optimize the teaching and learning process in the classroom. Therefore, this research will study about the beliefs of English teachers in primary school about teaching English to young learners seen from the practices being conducted in the classroom. By doing so, it is expected that the English teaching to young learners in Indonesia particularly in primary levels can be better in quality.

C.PROBLEM LIMITATION

Related to the topic of the study, this research mainly discusses about teachers‟ belief. There are many areas of teacher‟s beliefs that can be explored such as beliefs about English, beliefs about learning, beliefs about teaching, beliefs about the program and the curriculum, and beliefs about language teaching as a profession (Richard & Lockhart, 1996: 32-40). Among those areas, this study limits the discussion only on teachers‟ beliefs about language (in this case,

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English language), beliefs about language learning, and also beliefs about language teaching.

The other limitations of this research are related to the way and procedure to study the teachers‟ beliefs. As has been discussed previously, there are many ways to study about teachers‟ belief. It can be done by conducting survey or interview directly to the teachers, by analyzing the lesson materials of the teachers, or by observing the teachers‟ practices in the real classroom. However, this research studies the teachers‟ beliefs by observing the teachers‟ practices in the real classroom without conducting any surveys or interviews to the related teachers. This limitation aims to get objective understanding of teachers‟ beliefs from the observers‟ perspectives.

Meanwhile, related to the procedure, among several procedures proposed by Richards and Lockhart (1996:6) to do the investigation of the teaching classroom (through the teaching journals, lesson reports, surveys and questionnaires, audio and video recordings, observation, or action research), this research only uses video recording of a lesson as the object of research in order to do more focused and detailed study about certain aspect of teaching and learning process. In this research, the aspect which is observed is the classroom practice done by the teachers.

D.PROBLEM FORMULATION

Based on the problem identification and problem limitation above, this research is conducted to answer one research question: What are the teachers‟ beliefs about teaching English to young learners in primary school based on their classroom practices?

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E.RESEARCH GOALS

Teaching young learners needs special skills and competences since they have special characteristics that are quite different from the adolescents or the adults. The teachers‟ beliefs in teaching young learners will greatly affect the success of their teaching. Those beliefs will lead the way how the teachers teach the young learners effectively based on their special characteristics. Therefore, the goal of this research is to discover the beliefs of the English teachers who teach in the primary schools about teaching English to young learners.

F. RESEARCH BENEFITS

This research is expected to give some benefits. Theoretically, this study is expected to give more information or knowledge about the characteristics of the young learners and principles of teaching them. In addition, this research also can widen the perspectives of the teachers (especially English teachers in primary schools) so they can understand how to improve the process of teaching and learning in their classroom. Moreover, it is also hoped that the knowledge can enlighten the English teachers to have better understanding in dealing with the young learners which finally can improve the quality of English language teaching and learning in Indonesia.

Practically, this study is expected to stimulate the emergence of the new ways in doing the reflection to the English teaching in Indonesia particularly to the young learners. The reflection might encourage the teachers to always reflect their own or others‟ teaching particularly the teaching to young children. The teachers can observe their own classroom practices and can reflect them by relating it to the principles of teaching young learners to discover their beliefs

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about teaching English to young learners. By doing so, it is expected that the teachers are always be able to improve the quality of their teaching which surely can improve the success of English teaching and learning in Indonesia.

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11 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, some related theories are discussed to support the study on teachers‟ beliefs in teaching English to young learners in primary school. Those theories are presented and clarified to formulate the conceptual framework of this study.

A. THEORETICAL REVIEW

The theoretical review covers theories related to the research topic. They are theories about teachers‟ beliefs, teaching English to young learners (TEYL) in primary school, classroom practice, and relationship between teachers‟ beliefs and classroom practice. First of all, the discussion of theories about teachers‟ beliefs is elaborated through some subheadings namely definition of teachers‟ beliefs, sources of teachers‟ beliefs, and areas of teachers‟ beliefs. Meanwhile, the discussion of teaching English to young learners in primary school is elaborated through the explanations about the definition and characteristics of the young learners in primary school, and also the principles in teaching English to young learners in primary school. Next, the theories about classroom practices and theories about the relationship between teachers‟ beliefs and classroom practice are presented systematically. Finally, the explanations about all key constructs above are used to formulate the theoretical framework of this research.

1. Teachers‟ Beliefs

In order to gain a deep and wide understanding about teachers‟ beliefs, the discussion of teachers‟ beliefs are elaborated from the definitions and concepts

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proposed by some experts and researchers. After that, the clarifications of the concepts used in this research are presented to give clear direction to the discussion of the topic.

a. Definition of teachers‟ beliefs

The discussion about teachers‟ beliefs should be preceded by the clarification of „belief‟ as the basic concept. Pajares (1992) defined belief as an “individual‟s judgment of the truth or falsity of a proposition, a judgment that can only be inferred from a collective understanding of what human beings say, intend, and do” (in Khalid Bingimlas & Mary Hanrahan, 2010:416). Meanwhile, according to Borg, a belief can be defined as “a proposition which may be consciously or unconsciously held and serves as a guide to thought and behavior” (2001:186). In addition, he also remarked that since belief is considered as a truth by an individual so it influences the individual significantly in viewing the world, perceiving new information, and understanding the events (Borg, 2001:186-187). Based on the explanations above, it can be inferred that belief is an individual‟s judgment about the truth or falsity of a proposition that is consciously or unconsciously held and serves as a basis to think and behave, which only can be acknowledged by the understanding of the individual‟s saying, intention, and action.

Teachers‟ beliefs are also defined in some different ways by many researchers. Borg defined teachers‟ beliefs as “a term for teachers‟ pedagogic beliefs, or those beliefs of relevance to an individual‟s teaching” (2001:187). Similarly, Kagan (1992) defined teachers‟ beliefs as the “unconsciously held assumptions about students, classrooms, and the academic material to be taught”

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(in Farrell & Ives, 2015:595). The other definitions of teachers‟ beliefs are also proposed by Aguirre and Speer (2000), and Senior (2006). According to Aguirre and Speer, teachers‟ beliefs are “teachers‟ conceptions about the nature of teaching and learning” (in Bingimlas & Hanrahan, 2010:416). Meanwhile, Senior defined teachers‟ beliefs as “teachers‟ personal convictions about language teaching and learning which can be expressed” (2006:12).

Further descriptions of teachers‟ beliefs are proposed by Basturkmen, Ernest, and Johnson. Basturkmen et al. (2004) described teachers‟ beliefs as “a thinking activity in which teachers as people construct their own personal and workable theories of teaching” (in Cetina, 2009:662). Ernest (1989) defined teachers‟ beliefs as “mental models that shape learning and teaching practices” (in Bingimlas & Hanrahan, 2010:416). Meanwhile, according to Johnson (1992), the result of some studies about teachers‟ beliefs suggests three basic concepts. First, teachers‟ beliefs influence perception and judgment which determine teachers‟ actions in classrooms. Second, teachers‟ beliefs greatly affect the ways teachers learn to teach and apply what they learn in their classroom practices. Third, the comprehension of teachers‟ beliefs is significant in improving the quality of teaching and teacher‟s preparation (in Kristiana and Setyarini).

By referring to the theories above, teachers‟ beliefs in this research are defined as teachers‟ personal conceptions about teaching and learning, which are consciously and unconsciously held and expressed through their actions in the classroom. Inferred by the definition, the study of teachers‟ beliefs in this research is conducted by examining the teachers‟ actions in the classroom. Those actions

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of the teachers are significant in leading the study to investigate the teachers‟ conscious or unconscious personal conceptions about teaching and learning.

b. Sources of teachers‟ beliefs

Teachers‟ belief systems are developed over time and resulted from different sources. Some researchers on beliefs system suggest some different sources of beliefs. Kindsvatter, Willen, and Ishler (1988 in Richards and Lockhart, 1996:30-32) described six sources that influence the teachers‟ beliefs system, that are, teachers‟ experience as language learners, teachers‟ experience in teaching, teachers‟ personality, teachers‟ view about educational principles, teachers‟ view about an approach or method, and beliefs of teachers‟ workplace. The six sources will be discussed further in the following paragraphs respectively to gain deeper understanding of them.

The first source is the teachers‟ experience as language learners. All teachers are formerly the learners themselves and their experiences of being a learner will greatly influence their views about teaching and learning process. The ways they are taught and the ways they feel and react about them will create some conceptions in their mind about the nature of teaching and learning. Later on, those conceptions will become the beliefs of the teachers when they teach.

The second source is teachers‟ experience in teaching. The process of teaching is known as a process of learning by doing. It means that through the teaching practices conducted by the teachers, which involve successes and failures, the teachers will have some notions about which principles are working and which principles are not. After some time, those notions will become the

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teachers‟ beliefs about the best ways or best principles in the process of teaching and learning.

Then, the third source is the teachers‟ personality. As a human being, each teacher has their own special personality which influences their view about many things in their life including about teaching. The personality possessed by the teacher will guide their preferences in conducting the teaching and learning process. Taking for example, a teacher who likes to speak will prefer to teach using communicative approach which provides much interaction in the classroom rather than structural approach. In other words, the choice of teaching approach is closely connected with teachers‟ personality.

Next, the fourth source is the teachers‟ view about educational principles. This source is connected with the teachers‟ preferences in choosing the principles to be adopted in the classroom. Some teachers believe that the principles they get during their education are the best ones since those principles have been adopted for a long time. Some other teachers believe that the principles from recent researches are better since they are more appropriate to recent contexts and have been more tested.

The fifth source is teachers‟ view about an approach or method. The teachers‟ preference of an approach or method will lead them to choose the strategies and activities that are in line with that approach or method. Finally, the sixth source is the beliefs of teachers‟ workplace. Every workplace has their own preferences about the nature of teaching and learning process and the ways how to deal with them. As the teachers do their teaching in that place, automatically the teachers apply those preferences. As the time goes by, those preferences also

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become the teachers‟ preferences and ultimately become the teachers‟ beliefs. Based on the explanations above, it can be inferred that all those sources greatly affect what are believed by the teachers particularly about the nature of teaching and learning.

c. Areas of teachers‟ beliefs

Several researchers on teachers‟ beliefs have proposed some different theories about the areas of beliefs. Richards and Lockhart proposed five areas of beliefs namely beliefs about English, beliefs about learning, beliefs about teaching, beliefs about the program and the curriculum, and beliefs about language teaching as a profession (1996, 32-41). The other researcher, Graves, proposed four areas of beliefs, which include beliefs about language, beliefs about social context of language, beliefs about learning and learners, and beliefs about teaching (2000, 28-31). In conclusion, the areas of teachers‟ beliefs cover beliefs about English language, beliefs about learning, beliefs about teaching, beliefs about the program and the curriculum, beliefs about language teaching as a profession, and beliefs about the social context of the language.

All the areas of teachers‟ beliefs above will be discussed briefly in the following paragraphs. Meanwhile, in line with the topic of this research, the beliefs about language (in this case, English language), beliefs about learning and beliefs about teaching will be discussed more deeply and more detailed in the next subsections. As remarked by Graves (2000:30), beliefs about teaching are greatly affected by the beliefs about learning. This opinion is also supported by Doyle, Goh, & Zhang (2004:1) that the teachers‟ perceptions about teaching and learning will greatly determine their teaching in the classroom. Since this research is about

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beliefs in English teaching, the discussion of beliefs in English language is also very important. The views and perceptions that the teachers have about English language will significantly influence their beliefs about how to learn it and then how to teach it in the classroom. Therefore, the deep and wide discussions about teachers‟ beliefs in English language, teachers‟ beliefs in English learning and teachers‟ beliefs in English teaching are considered significant for this research and will be presented in the following subsections respectively.

First area of teachers‟ beliefs is beliefs about the program and the curriculum, This beliefs might influence the teachers in some extent. Those influences are particularly related with the decisions about kind of programs, general views about teaching, general objectives, or teaching materials. However, teachers‟ personal beliefs on planning the lessons, implementing the teaching objectives, and doing the assessments are what ultimately and primarily affect the classroom practices (Richards and Lockhart, 1996:38).

The second area of teachers‟ beliefs is beliefs about language teaching as a profession. The teachers‟ beliefs about language teaching as a profession would influence their professionalism as teachers (Richards and Lockhart, 1996:40). If they have positive beliefs about their job as a profession, it will lead their professionalism to a better direction which can be clearly seen on their classroom practices.

Next, the third area is beliefs about the social context of language. Social context of language includes the “sociolinguistic, sociocultural, and socio-political issues in language teaching. Sociolinguistic issues concern with how to fit the language to the context. Sociocultural issues concern with the relation between

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language and culture. Meanwhile, socio-political issues concern with how certain language or social group is viewed by other social groups, access language and services, and a critical awareness of how language is used.” (Graves, 2000:29). In other words, beliefs about social context of language enable the teachers to guide the learners how to use the language (in this case, English) wisely and appropriate to its context in the society. Connecting with the teaching and learning process, teachers‟ beliefs about the social context of language will influence the teachers‟ preferences in choosing lesson‟s topic and learning resources.

The three areas of teachers‟ beliefs above are significant in determining teachers‟ practices in the real classroom. Each area must have the impacts to teachers in doing their professional life as teachers. Next, as previously explained, the other three areas of teachers‟ beliefs namely beliefs about English language, beliefs about learning, and beliefs about teaching will be discussed more deeply and detailed in the next three subsections below in order to give more understanding about the topic.

1) Beliefs about language

First area of teachers‟ beliefs is beliefs about language. The beliefs greatly affect the way the teachers consider what to teach and how to teach it (Graves, 2000:28). Language has been defined in many ways. According to Bailey (1998) language is defined as “pronunciation, grammar, lexis, discourse (in Graves, 2000:28). Meanwhile, language is defined as “form, meaning and use” by Larsen-Freeman (1990 in Grave, 2000:28). The views about language influence the beliefs about how it should be learned. Taking for example, language can be viewed as rule governed so it should be learned through the grammatical rules or

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the language can be viewed as meaning-based so it should be learned through meaningful activities and so on.

Similarly, Richards and Lockhart remarked that the teachers‟ beliefs about English language in some extent provide contributions to what they are doing in the classroom (1996:33). In addition, Richards and Lockhart described the teachers‟ beliefs about English are greatly affected by their contacts with the language and its speakers. The contacts that the teachers have with the language and its speakers will influence their opinion about the significance of learning English, the important elements to be learnt, the characteristics of English language, and the importance of native-like pronunciation. All of the things above formulate the teachers‟ beliefs about English language which finally lead their beliefs in how to learn and how to teach it through the classroom practices.

2) Beliefs about learning

When the teacher and the learner come to the classroom, they bring with them some experiences about learning. Those experiences lead them to have some degree of expectations about what to be learnt and how the process of learning should happen (Richards & Lockhart, 1996:34). These kinds of expectations then develop into beliefs about learning. In addition, Graves stated that teachers‟ beliefs in learning are reflected in the process, the roles of learners, and the focus of learning in their classrooms (2000:29). Related with the process, Stevick (1998 in Graves, 2000:30) stated his opinion like presented in the following quotation.

“Learning can be considered as “a process of applying received knowledge (deductive process), a process of making a new knowledge (inductive process), a process involving mental activity (cognitive process), a process involving emotional connection and

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risk taking (affective process), or a process involving learning with others or social process”. (Stevick, 1998 in Graves, 2000:30)

Then, related with their roles, the learners can be the sources of knowledge or recipients of it and the decision-makers or subordinates” (Graves, 2000:30). Meanwhile, related with the focus, the intention of learning can be to acquire new knowledge, to master skills, to develop awareness, or to learn about attitudes “(Graves, 2000:30). Teachers‟ beliefs about learning can be derived from their education or training, their experiences in teaching, or their experiences as learners (Freeman in Richards and Lockhart, 1996:34). The teachers and learners in the classroom may have different beliefs about learning. Those differences are potentially causes problems in the classroom. Therefore, it is important for the teachers to introduce their beliefs clearly before conducting their classroom practices.

3) Beliefs about teaching

Every teacher as an individual has their own personal views about what is teaching and what kind of teaching is effective. Those personal views then are known as beliefs about teaching. All that the teachers do in the classroom (or teachers‟ classroom practices) are primarily the representations of their beliefs about teaching. According to Richards and Lockhart, teachers‟ beliefs about teaching could be seen through the teachers‟ role, implemented teaching method, and teaching resources being used in the classroom (1996:36).

Similarly, Graves proposed that beliefs about teaching and teachers‟ role are closely related with beliefs about learning (2000:30). The beliefs about teaching and teachers‟ role in the teaching process are the result of the teachers‟ beliefs

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about learning process which should happen in the classroom. Related with the beliefs about teaching, it can be viewed as “a knowledge transmission, a management of learning, a provision of learning structures, or a collaborative process‟ (Graves, 2000:31). Meanwhile, considering the beliefs about their roles, the teachers can be considered as “decision makers, knowledge transmitters, learning structures‟ providers, collaborators, or resources” (Graves, 2000:31). 2. Teaching English to Young Learners in Primary School

Prior to the discussion about young learners in primary school, it is important to define whom this term refers to. Later on, the characteristics of young learners in primary school by some experts and researchers are presented. Finally, the principles of teaching English to young learners in primary school which proposed by some experts in TEYL are also presented.

a. Definition of young learners in primary school

Slattery and Willis (2001:4) defined young learners as children who are seven until twelve years old. Similarly, Brewster, Ellis, and Girard (2002:28) also defined young learners as children who are seven until twelve years old and then classified them into three age groups: 3-6 years old, 7-9 years old, and 10-12 years old. The classification is based on the characteristics of children as learners which will be discussed in the following part of the research. Furthermore, Phillips (2003:3) defined young learners as “children from the first year of formal schooling (five or six years old) to eleven or twelve years of age”. In other words, young learners are school-age children who study in the primary schools. In addition, Pinter (2011:1) defined young learners as children from five to fourteen years old in any educational levels. Based on some definitions above, it can be

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inferred that young learners are children who are five until fourteen years old and usually study in the primary school.

However, referring to the context of this research (Indonesian context), the school age for primary school is from seven to twelve years old. Thus, the term „young learners‟ in this research refers to children who are seven years old until twelve years old and study in primary school. Furthermore, in Indonesian context, the young learners in primary school are divided into two groups, namely lower primary students (seven until nine years old) and upper primary students (ten until twelve years old). The young learners in this research particularly refer to lower primary students since the lesson being investigated is in lower primary classroom.

b. Characteristics of young learners in primary school

Based on to the definition of young learners in the previous part, that they are basically young children, thus it is significant to discuss the characteristics of young children before discussing further about young learners. As widely studied, young children have some characteristics that differentiate them with older children, adolescents, or adults. Recognizing and acknowledging those characteristics can give much contribution in understanding their way of thinking, feeling, and acting. Then, as the further result, the teacher can have more understanding about how to teach them or how to deal with them in the classroom particularly in the English classroom.

Among many researchers who are interested in studying young children, Brewster, Ellis and Girard are the ones who give a quite detailed explanation about the characteristics of young children. They described the characteristics

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from the general until the very specific ones. The common characteristics of young children described by Brewster et al. (2002:27-28) are shown in the following quotation.

“1) Have a lot of physical energy and often need to be physically active; 2) Have a wide range of emotional needs; 3) Are emotionally excitable; 4) Are developing conceptually and are at an early stage of their schooling; 5) Are still developing literacy in their first language; 6) Learn more slowly and forget things quickly; 7) Tend to be self-oriented and preoccupied with their own world; 8) Get bored easily; 9) Are excellent mimics; 10) Can concentrate for a surprisingly long time if they are interested; and 11) Can be easily distracted but also very enthusiastic.” (Brewster, Ellis and Girard, 2002:27-28)

In addition to the common characteristics, Brewster et al. (2002:28) also described the physical and emotional characteristic of young children. According to their description, most of young children are physically active and emotionally unstable. The detailed descriptions of the physical and emotional characteristics of young children by Brewster et al. are presented in the following quotation.

“1) All learners of primary school age have emotional needs, such as developing self-esteem and confidence in learning; 2) Still operate in a very egocentric way, where they find it difficult to consider others‟ needs; 3) Tend not to cooperate with others as effectively as older children; 4) Can become easily frustrated if their needs are not met; 5) Still developing motor skills, such as holding pencil, hopping, skipping, balancing, and the hand-eye coordination; 6) They are also more physically restless than older children; 7) Require activities which are short, varied and which occasionally allow them to burn off energy, 8) They may be unstable emotionally and have sudden emotional outbursts, 9) Need to develop a sense of confidence and self-esteem; 10) Need to have other children to share and play with; 11) Need to be involved in learning where they are physically active, 12) Need to have routines that provide a sense of security and a warm, encouraging classroom atmosphere, where they feel they have opportunities to succeed in their learning and receive praise”. (Brewster, Ellis and Girard, 2002:28)

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Furthermore, Brewster et al. (2002:28) also state the characteristics of young children related with their conceptual, educational and linguistic development. Conceptually, young children are quite ready for rational thinking and also need greater opportunities to explore many things around them. However, young children are still developing their mastery of complex grammatical expression. The characteristics are described clearly in the following quotation.

“1) Young children are still developing numeracy and literacy in their first language and up to the age of puberty are still learning to master complex grammatical expression even when speaking or writing their L1; 2) Capable of realistic and rational thought; 3) The very young need opportunities to choose and decide on actions; to investigate, explore and be curious; be encouraged to question, to work things out; activities which help them to focus and pay attention in order to develop memory and concentration skills; activities which reinforce concepts they may be developing and develop oral skills”. (Brewster, Ellis and Girard, 2002:28)

However, as explained previously, Brewster, Ellis, and Girard (2002:28) classified young learners into three groups. It means that their characteristics of young children include all of the three groups. Since the young children being studied in this research are primary school children, some characteristics that are appropriate to primary school age children are formulated in Table 2.1.

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Table 2.1

Characteristic of Young Children in Primary School (Adopted from Brewster, Ellis, and Girard, 2002:27-28) Physical Characteristic Emotional Characteristic Developmental Characteristic Have a lot of

physical energy

Get bored easily Learning more slowly and forget things easily

Tends to be active and restless

Short attention span Capable of realistic thought Very enthusiastic about

almost everything

Still developing numeracy and literacy in their first language and still learning to master complex grammatical expression Can be easily distracted Need opportunities to be

encouraged to question and work things out.

Have many emotional

needs, such as

developing self-esteem and confidence in learning

Still quite egocentric Need to have other children to share and play

Have unstable emotions

Basically, understanding all characteristics above can help the English teachers in teaching the young children more effectively. However, there are some particular characteristics of the young children which are useful in learning language (in this case, learning English language). The characteristics of young children which can support them as language learners are proposed by many researchers (Slattery and Willis, 2001:4; Brewster, Ellis, and Girard, 2002:162, 172; Phillips, 2003:34, 68; Moon, 2000:4-9; and Cameron, 2001:1). Referring to the theories by some researchers above, some characteristics of young children that can support them in language learning are presented in Table 2.2.

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Table 2.2 Characteristics of Young Children as Language Learners

No. Characteristics of Young Children

as Language Learners

1 By nature, young children like to have fun and enjoying constructive play and games.

2 Young children can imitate the sounds they hear quite accurately. 3 Young children like songs, rhythm, and chants.

4 Young children are naturally curious, enthusiastic, and lively learners. 5 Young children have short attention span.

6 Young children consider their teachers as role models. 7 Young children are less hesitant in learning new language.

8 Young children tends to use their mother tongue to help them in learning new language.

9 Young children go for meaning rather than form in understanding new language.

10 Young children are comfortable with routines and enjoy repetition.

c. Principles of teaching English to young learners in primary schools

As widely discussed in previous parts, English is still a foreign language in Indonesia since it is not widely used in the society. Related to its status in Indonesia, English is learned as the second language by the young learners. Therefore, it is important to acknowledge the theories of language acquisition to help us in understanding better about the process of young learners in acquiring English. The theories that will be discussed include the behaviourist theories, innatist theories, and interactionist theories. These three theories are actually the basic theories of first language acquisition but then these theories are also relevant with second language acquisition since first language acquisition is widely used as the ideal model how the second language might be taught.

The first theory is known as behaviourist theory. This theory stated that the first language is learnt by children through stimulus, response, and reinforcement,

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which puts imitation and association as the main processes. This behaviourist theory of language acquisition has given some contributions to second language teaching. One of them is the use of Audiolingual method, which emphasizes on the dialogue memorization and pattern drills as the natural sequence of first language acquisition. Furthermore, behaviorist theory also suggested that imitation, repetition, and reinforcement of grammatical structures are the main process in second or foreign language learning. In addition, errors should be corrected immediately to prevent bad habits and the main activity based on this method is drill-and-skill practice.

Second theory is called the innatist theory. According to this theory, language acquisition is facilitated by an innate or biological language acquisition device (LAD). The supporter of this theory argued that all children have universal grammar or the ability to select and construct the grammatical rules of their mother tongue through hypothesis testing. This theory claimed that only little help obtained from the parents or caregivers for children in acquiring the rules. Mainly, the children depend on their innate ability to acquire the grammar of the language. The influence of this theory to second language acquisition is the use of contrastive analysis in predicting learners‟ errors and difficulties in acquiring second language. Constrastive analysis is a procedure for comparing the rules of learner‟s mother tongue and his or her second language.

The third basic acquisition theory is known as interactionist theory. Interactionist theory remarks the importance of interaction in facilitating the language acquisition. Through the interaction, the caregivers or parents help children to use their innate capacities in the process of language acquisition. In

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addition, the interaction also facilitates the children in constructing the meanings of words which finally develop their language. The implication of this theory in second language acquisition is the idea of using the interaction for the negotiation of meaning. In the process of modifying the language in order to understand and to be understood, the second language learners are challenged to understand the inputs and to produce comprehensible outputs.

Based on the three basic acquisition theories being explained above, there are three main theories for language classroom practices, including in the primary classrooms. Those theories consist of input hypothesis by Krashen (1985 in Mackey, 1999:558), output hypothesis by Swain (1995 in Mackey, 1999:559), and interaction hypothesis by Michael Long (1996 in Mackey, 1999:558). In general, these three theories are in line with the basic theories of language acquisition above. Each of them would be presented and discussed respectively in the following parts.

First theory is input hypothesis by Krashen (1985 in Mackey, 1999:558). As being explained in the previous parts, this hypothesis deals with what kind of input given to the learners. The input must be higher than the learners‟ current level of language knowledge in order to make them curious and feel challenged to learn more and more. Particularly for young learners, challenge is very important to arouse their curiosity which finally can increase their motivation in developing their English knowledge and competence. However, the inputs must not be too far from the learners‟ current level because the learners will be demotivated if the inputs are too difficult. In other words, the inputs must be comprehensible in order to facilitate the language acquisition. The inputs can be made more

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comprehensible through some cues such as gestures, pictures, and contexts. Particularly for young learners of primary schools in Indonesia, comprehensible inputs are significant in the process of language acquisition and learning. Related with the status of English as a foreign language, the learners only have very limited contacts with the language. Therefore, the comprehensible inputs that they get in English classroom become more important to help them acquiring the language.

Next, second theory is the Output Hypothesis proposed by Swain (1995 in Mackey, 1999:559). Through this hypothesis, Swain remarked the significance of comprehensible output in second language acquisition process. According to this hypothesis, the learners must get the opportunity to produce the language since in the process of language production the learners are forced to think about the form of the language. In their attempts to be understood by the listeners, the learners will have to modify their language and this process is very useful in facilitating the second language acquisition. In other words, this hypothesis argued that the opportunities to produce the language or to talk about the language can facilitate the second language development.

The last theory is known as Interaction Hypothesis proposed by Michael Long (1996 in Mackey, 1999:558). This theory emphasized the importance of interaction to facilitate the acquisition since it can provide the significant input and output for the learners. Through the discourse which happens during the interaction, the learners will experience the negotiation process in order to understand and to be understood by their conversational partners. In other words, interaction enables the learners to get more various inputs and also wider

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memorizing. Because there are two teachers there, right, Pak Andre and Pak Seto. The first time, the students greeted Pak Andre, “Good morning, sir!”, “Good morning, students! Then Pak Andre only used his gestures to greet Pak Seto. Instead of saying, “say good morning to Pak Seto”. If he said it, it will be very communicative. Or when one of the students came late, the teachers can ask all students to say “say hello to …(name of the student who came late). The small thing like that can create a communicative activity in the classroom. Even in the greeting, what the students do is just a kind of memorizing.

67 P2 Because the teachers here are still dominant, that‟s why most interaction is only teachers and the whole class, one way direction.

68 P1 Teacher-centered and also direct instruction. Direct instruction means teachers lead the examples, teachers give instruction.

69 R Okay, now talking about flashcards, songs and the games. How are these media used by the teachers, to support the learning or as part of learning?

70 P1 Most songs are as fillers. The first song, „good morning‟ song, if it‟s used before the students greet the teachers and used to greet other friends, it has function. But it‟s just singing, „good morning‟, instead of saying good morning to friends or teachers.

A3/70/P1

71 R How about games, do they are also used support the learning only?

72 P2 Maybe I can add, the flashcard, I don‟t know whether it can be considered as realia or not, because it‟s part of the learning. The teachers showed the picture and it helps the students, not to only imagine but also see the real things through the picture. And then about song, about it is a filler or partition, but as I read in Brewster, songs can be used as psychological or affective resources which mean that they are motivating, fun, and help to develop positive attitude toward the target language. Then they are not threatening, because when the students make mistake in pronunciation, it‟s okay. And they can encourage feeling of achievement. That‟s what we can get from

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songs. Then, about the games, I think it‟s still the same, as the affective resource. It supports the learning process.

73 R As what you all said before, that the teachers believe that learning for young learners must be fun. However, besides that, learning should have certain purpose, right. What do you think about this?

74 P3 Maybe the teachers believe that young learners like physical movement. That‟s why they did many activities that involve body movement. 75 P2 If I can try to formulate the beliefs, I think

learning here is a habit formation. I mean it‟s clearly shown in every activity and what the teachers did, habit because the teachers always gave the presentation, the students practiced, and then production. Almost in every topic they used that, and also the habit in using the games or songs or many kinds of practices for drilling, clearly to build formation. The students repeat the activity again and again, the students will memorize how to do it again and again and they are more familiar with that, in using the language and also in the process of learning.

A3/75/P2

76 R So they believe in behaviourism. 77 P2 Yes, I think so.

78 R How about the content, mostly focus on meaning or form?

79 P1 Meaning and form. Form, and then meaning. The teacher give examples, when teaching possessive pronoun, the teacher said, “It is my pencil”, it‟s meaningful. The teacher showed the meaning, my pencil, my possession. Giving examples in throwing the ball, bouncing the ball, and the others, refers to the meaning also. For the third topic, it is more on meaning only because the students have to mime or imitate the actions. But for possessive pronoun, it is both meaning and form.

80 R So in other words, do the teachers believe that forms are learned in the meaningful activities or by showing the form directly to the students?

81 P1 Like what we agreed that they learn the patterns or grammar implicitly, I guess the meaning is more dominant. Implicitly and indirectly, the students learnt the patterns.

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82 R You said that the meaning is more dominant but there were almost no communicative activity. Is it a kind of paradox here? What does it imply about the teachers‟ beliefs?

83 P2 Or the teacher actually wants to reach two things, about the structural and the functional, yes, about the grammar maybe, also the communicative activities. But here, the communicative activities are not really achieved.

84 R Is it because of the tight agenda?

85 P3 Or because the teachers do not give chance for the students to do it or to interact.

86 P1 Pure interaction is not there.

87 P2 The choice of the activity doesn‟t really show the communicative activities.

88 R So, meaning is given through one way interaction.

89 P2 I think so.

90 R How do they apply the memory strategies in teaching young learners?

91 P1 Repetition and visuals, and also physical. Physical and visual at the same time when they practice bouncing, pick up and the others. Repetition and visuals and then they practice possessive pronoun.

A3/91/P1

92 R Again, related to the technique, do you think they believe in intramental or intermental development in teaching young learners? 93 P3 Probably the teachers believe that the

students might acquire language through social environment instead of acquire language by themselves.

A3/93/P3

94 R As what we have discussed before, in this class, there is only one way interaction, from the teachers to the students. Does the social environment really help the learners in acquiring the language?

95 P3 If you want to relate this with Vygotsky‟s theory, the learners may acquire the language from their helper. Helper here can be their parents or teachers.

A3/95/P3

96 R Does it happen in this classroom?

97 P3 If that‟s the idea, I think it happens there. 98 R Although it‟s one way interaction?

99 P3 Yes, there is a teacher there as their helper. 100 R So the social side is from the teachers.

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101 P3 Yes.

102 R One more thing about the media. We have discussed many things about the media. Do their techniques in using the media, by modifying some parts of the language, for example change some parts of the lyrics in the songs infer something about their beliefs in the process of teaching and learning? Or in the drilling, by changing the patterns or vocabularies in it? Is it a kind of challenge, if we relate with input plus one?

103 P3 It might be.

104 P2 Related with the song, I think there is no relation with the materials.

A3/104/P2 105 P1 Only the last song has relation with the

materials. The last song before the lesson is over, there was one song, pointed to the ceiling, pointed to the door, the teacher change the words into pick up the ball, throw the ball…It has relation. In this case, the song has a purpose. It has function related to the lesson.

A3/105/P1

106 R Is it because the teachers think that the students are ready to produce more complicated one? 107 P2 Well, it‟s not really complicated sentence. 108 P1 It‟s only repeating the patterns. The sentences

are the same with the ones that they practice, right? It‟s just reviewing. The song is put there is only to review. Although I don‟t think that the teachers purposely use that song to review the lesson. Probably the idea to change comes up at that time.

109 P2 If you look at Brewster‟s book, you can find about adapting song. So we can use the song, we can change the lyric according to what teacher need. If it is for review, what the teacher has is like what we see in the video. 110 P1 But for Hoky Poky, there is no relation with

the materials, about body part.

111 R So, the teachers believe that the media are used to support the learning, not the part of learning. Okay, that‟s all for our discussion. Thank you for your participation.

(5)

178 APPENDIX 4

LIST OF GUIDES FOR PARTICIPANTS

No Elements Focus of Attention Additional

Information 1 Learners Learners‟ role

Learners‟ use of language

2 Teachers

Teachers‟ role

Co-teaching of two teachers Teachers‟ use of instructional language

Teachers‟ use of language in giving questions

Teachers‟ use of language in giving feedback

Teachers‟ use of language to explain vocabulary and grammar Teachers‟ attitudes toward lessons Teachers‟ attitude toward

inappropriate behaviours

3 Materials

The use of textbook The use of other resources Elements of language (vocabulary/patterns/ pronunciation/expression)

4 Lessons structure

Opening Sequencing Pacing Closure

5 Activities

Number of activities Variation of activities Types of activities (whole-class/pair/group/individual) Length of each activity (time allotment)

6 Teaching technique

Repetition Presentation Playing Singing

(6)

Communicating (questioning and answering)

7 Classroom management

Classroom physical condition (size, sound, comfort, light) Seating arrangement

Teaching board

Equipment (e.g. computer) Teachers‟ body language and voice

Teachers‟ attitude toward unexpected events

Teaching style Time management

8 Media

Flashcards Songs Games

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