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CHAPTER 2 Theoretical Description
A.
Previous Studies
In this part of theoretical description, this is not the only one research that discusses about metaphor, because five previous researches that have the same
discussion are found. The first research comes from Lailiyyatuz Zuhriyyah 2011 entitled
“ An Analysis of Metaphor and Metonymy on Stephanie Meyer‟s Novel Breaking Dawn”. This research is focused on metaphor and
metonymy in breaking dawn novel. Some types of metaphor and metonymy are found in this research.
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The same theory has been used by a student of English Letter from Widyatama University Tania Azhar 2013 entitled
“ An Analysis of metaphor „Argument is War‟ in Business News of English Newspaper: A Semantic Study
”. In this research, the theory that applied is correlated with semantic field, such as mappings and offense-defense metaphor. The research findings shows
that metaphoric language utterance of war terms based on metphor mappings. The dominant metaphor that found is offensive category.
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Another research wrote by a student of English Letters student from Widyatama University, Mila Puspitasari 2013 entitled “An Analyze of
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Lailiyyatuz Zuhriyyah, Unpublished Bachelor Thesis: “An Analysis of Metaphor and Metonymy on Stephenie Meyer‟s Novel Breaking Dawn”, Faculty of Letters and Humanity, UIN
Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, 2011.
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Tania Azhar, Unpublished Bachelor Thesis: “ An Analysis of Metaphor
„Argument is War‟ in Business News of English Newspaper: A Semantic Study”, Fakultas Bahasa, Universitas Widyatama Bandung, 2013.
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M etaphor Ontology on Stephenie Meyer‟s Novel The Twilight New Moon and
The Twilight Eclipse”. This research is aimed to describe and analyze the ontology metaphor into four metaphor category such as: a events, activities,
and states are entities, b event, activities, and states are containers, and c visual fields are containers. This research has gained the outcome that states
are entities are dominant data.
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Another research about metaphor has been analyzed by Ida Vestermark entitled Metaphors in Politics: A Study of the Metaphorical Personification of
America in Political Discourse . This paper observed the conceptual metaphors
of personification in American inaugural addresses, for what the metaphor are used and what do they suggest to the audience. The analysis proved that all
presidents used metaphors in personalizing America to activate the emotions of the listener. The analysis also revealed the importance of interpreting
metaphors based on the context, because sometimes the language not always interprets metaphorically.
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The last analysis wrote by Bintarti Mayang Sari, a student from University of Indonesia, with the title Metafora Dalam Pidato Charles De
Gaulle Pada Perang Dunia II. The analysis focused on metaphor
categorization and its meaning from an independence speech delivered by a French politician named De Gaulle, using Lakoff and Johnson conceptual
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Mila Puspitasari, Unpublished Bachelor Thesis: “
An Analyze of Metaphor Ontology on Stephenie Meyer‟s Novel The Twilight New Moon and The Twilight Eclipse”.
Fakultas Bahasa, Universitas Widyatama Bandung, 2013.
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I
da Vestermark, Extended Essay: “Metaphors in Politics Essay; A Study of The
Metaphorical Personification of America in Political Discourse”, Department of Language and
Culture, Luleå University of Technology, 2007.
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metaphor theory to show how a politics speech can be easier to understand by the listener and also can be easier to deliver by De Gaulle to share his
concepts and point of view toward the actual situation in France. In this analysis, there are several concepts of metaphor used by De Gaulle to made
French society easier to access De Gaulle‟s message. Metaphor in his speech
showed the concept of his state of mind as a leader of French, toward the complicated actual situation in World War II to achieve real independence.
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Finally, from t he previous researches above haven‟t mentioned the
structure of metaphorical language; therefore this is the obvious reason why this research will be seen as newer and interesting research to analyze.
.
B.
Meaning
In the study of meaning, it can not be apart from kind of meaning called literal meaning. The literal meaning of a linguistics expression is its
conventional meaning: the maeaning it has in virtue of the conventions which are constitutive of the language. Thus, understood literal meaning is a property
of the expression type; for it is the expression type which the conventions of the language endow with a particular meaning.
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Whenever the meaning which the expression actually conveys departs, from that literal meaning, it is
said to be „non-literal‟, in ordinary sense of term, non-literal meaning contrast with normal meaning. Non-literal meaning is special, it involves a form of
16
Binarti Mayang Sari, Unpublished Bachelor Thesis: “Metafora Dalam Pidato Charles De Gaulle Pada Perang Dunia II”, Fakultas Ilmu Pengetahuan Budaya, University of Indonesia,
2012.
17
Francois Recanati, Literal Meaning Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004, p. 68
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deviance or departure from the norm; a form of deviance or departure which must be transparent to language users.
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If people hear someone says “there goes a fox” it is refer to literal
meaning that there is a wild animal of the dog with red fur and a bushy tail, but if people
hear someone says, “the fox is promised to help her” the listener have to refer to the non-literal meaning because that is impossible for fox to
help a human, but if they force to take to the literal meaning that the fox here means a wild animal of the dog with red fur and bushy tail the meaning will
become illogical. However, if the listener is refer to somebody that full of trick,
the meaning will be accepted.
The paradigm case of literal meaning is metaphor. Cognitive linguists reject the so called substitution theory of metaphor according to which a
metaphorical expression replaces some literal expression that has the same meaning. However, metaphorical meaning has a special character that
distinguishes it from any literal meaning, it has the same range of basic functions as literal meaning. Thus, many metaphorical expression have a
heavy load of expressive meaning. But so do literal expressions. In other words, metaphorical meaning is not, at least in basic functional respect, a
special kind of meaning: it is rather the case that metaphor is the result of special process for arriving at, or construing a meaning.
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18
Ibid., p. 81
19
William Croft and D. Alan Cruse, Cognitive Linguistics Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p. 194
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C.
Concepts
Saeed described concepts as follows “The sense of the some words, while mental, is not visual, but a more abstract element: a concept.
”
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However, another definition of concept is taken, acording to Oxford dictionary the
definition of concepts is as follows: “Concepts is an idea or mental image which corresponds to some distinct
entity or class of entities, or to its essential features, or determines the application of terms especially predicates.”
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Thus, concepts is a mental image or mental abstract that refers to an entity and equal with the
meaning of the word. As stated by Saeed that concepts are corresponds to single word, that are lexicalized.
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To make it clearer the writer takes the example as follows:
a We‟re designing a device for cooking food by microwaves.
From the example above, the word microwave is two-word label from the word micro-wave oven, but is now usually called just a microwave.
Microwave is a concept which is lexicalized from the understanding of a tool that is used for cooking and warmimg food. Moreover, not all
concepts are like this, some concepts are described by phrase. The following example will be describe the concepts by phrase:
b On the shopping channel, I saw a tool for compacting dead leaves into
garden statuary.
20
John Saeed, Op. Cit., p. 34
21
Oxford Dictionary
22
John Saeed Op. Cit., p.34
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From the example above, the concepts views from the usability. If every home ends up having a tool to turn leaves into statues, a name for it
will be invented when new concepts or new words were given to them. However, Saeed stated that concept views as list of knowledge. If we
have concept like zebra, we might agree with some attribute that is an animal, has four legs, is striped, and is herbivore.
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Thus, from the explanation before it can be concluded that concept is a mental image of
the entities that relate to one another and form a meaning.
D.
Cognitive Metaphor or Conceptual Approach
According to Lakoff and Johnson conceptual metaphor is the understanding of one thing to another term.
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Conceptual metaphor is a system of metaphor that structures everyday conceptual system, including most
abstract concepts that lie behind everyday language
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. Thus, conceptual system plays a central role in defining realities. In conceptual metaphor, one
mental domains in terms of another have conceptualized.
Conceptual metaphor employs an abstract concept as target to define a concrete concept as source
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. The ordinary conceptual systems in terms of how thought and action are fundamentally metaphorical in nature. In addition,
Lakoff and Johnson stated that metaphor governs everyday functioning, perceive concept what have been structured, how view the world, and how
23
Ibid., p. 35
24
George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Op.Cit., p. 56
25
Geoge Lakoff, Contemporary Theory of Metaphor, 1992, p.3
26
Zoltan Kovescses, Metaphor: A Practical Introduction New York: Oxford University Press, 2010, p. 7
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relate to other people.
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Metaphors are closely corresponding to human conceptual system. To make it clearer the writer takes the examples from
Lakoff and Johnson of what it could mean for a concept to be metaphorical and concept to structure an everyday activity.
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The writer takes the example with the concept “Argument” from conceptual metaphor “Argument is War”.
This metaphor is reflected in everyday language by a many varieties
expression such as:
He attacked every weak point in my argument. He shots down all of my argument.
I demolished his argument. Your claims are indefensible.
I‟ve never won an argument with her.
Many of the things in arguing are partially structured by the concept of war. In fact, as it can be seen, people do not just talk about arguments in term of
war but it influences from they thought because that conceptual structures. Someone can actually win or lose arguments, plan and use strategies. If a position
is indefensible, it can abandon and take a new line of attack. However, in this sense Argument is War structures the action performs in arguing and of course the
term it is influenced by culture. Therefore, there is similarity between conceptual system and experience. The way people talk about argument that way because
27
George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Op.Cit., p. 4
28
Ibid., p. 4
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they conceive that way and they act according to the way they conceive things. From the example above there is similarity between the concept of Argument and
the concept of War. According to Knowles and Moon, dead metaphor is sometimes used to
refer to conventional metaphor, especially those which people do not recognize as metaphorical in ordinary use.
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For instance, my spirits rose is a part of up-down metaphor structure, Happy is Up.
30
According to conceptual metaphor, this metaphor will be extended like uppers that means stimulant recreational drugs and
downers means tranquillizers.
Metaphor helps to understand something abstract. However, most people think that they can get along without metaphor. Yet, on the contrary they finds
that metaphor is pervasive in everyday life. Generally, conceptual system naturally comes from the thought. Thus, conceptual system plays a central role in
defining everyday realities. Moreover, according to Reddy in Lakoff explained that metaphor is part of conventional way of conceptualizing the world, and
everyday behavior that have reflected metaphorical understanding of experience
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. Therefore, it can be conclude that conceptual system is largely metaphorical but it
has not been noticed by human thought processes.
29
Knowles and Rosamund Moon, Op.Cit., p 5
30
Saaed, Op.Cit., p. 156
31
George Lakoff. Op.Cit., p. 2
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E.
Systemacity of Metaphorical Concepts
According to Lakoff and Johnson, there are some terms used to analyzing the elements involved in conceptual metaphor.
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Conceptual metaphor equates two conceptual ideas, those are source domain and target domain. Conceptual
metaphor also sees connection between in terms of correspondences or mapping between source and target domain, highlighting and hiding. The
following explanation will describe the elements of conceptual metaphor.
1. Source Domain, Target Domain, CorrespondencesMappings
Kategori