Sequences of Operations and the RENAME Operation
6.1.3 Sequences of Operations and the RENAME Operation
The relations shown in Figure 6.1 that depict operation results do not have any names. In general, for most queries, we need to apply several relational algebra operations one after the other. Either we can write the operations as a single relational algebra expression by nesting the operations, or we can apply one oper- ation at a time and create intermediate result relations. In the latter case, we must give names to the relations that hold the intermediate results. For example, to retrieve the first name, last name, and salary of all employees who work in depart- ment number 5, we must apply a SELECT and a PROJECT operation. We can write a single relational algebra expression, also known as an in-line expression, as follows:
π Fname , Lname , Salary ( σ Dno = 5 ( EMPLOYEE ))
Figure 6.2(a) shows the result of this in-line relational algebra expression. Alternatively, we can explicitly show the sequence of operations, giving a name to each intermediate relation, as follows:
DEP5_EMPS ← σ Dno = 5 ( EMPLOYEE )
RESULT ← π Fname , Lname , Salary ( DEP5_EMPS ) It is sometimes simpler to break down a complex sequence of operations by specify-
ing intermediate result relations than to write a single relational algebra expression. We can also use this technique to rename the attributes in the intermediate and
(a)
Figure 6.2
Fname Lname Salary Results of a sequence of operations. (a) π Fname, Lname, Salary John
Smith 30000 (σ Dno=5 (EMPLOYEE)). (b) Using intermediate relations Franklin Wong
and renaming of attributes.
Ramesh Narayan 38000 Joyce
English 25000
(b)
TEMP Fname
Sex Salary Super_ssn Dno John
Minit Lname
B Smith
123456789 1965-01-09 731 Fondren, Houston,TX M
40000 888665555 5 Ramesh
T Wong
333445555 1955-12-08 638 Voss, Houston,TX
38000 333445555 5 Joyce
K Narayan 666884444 1962-09-15 975 Fire Oak, Humble,TX
A English
453453453 1972-07-31 5631 Rice, Houston, TX
F 25000 333445555 5
R First_name Last_name Salary John
Smith 30000 Franklin
Wong 40000 Ramesh
Narayan 38000 Joyce
English 25000
152 Chapter 6 The Relational Algebra and Relational Calculus
result relations. This can be useful in connection with more complex operations such as UNION and JOIN , as we shall see. To rename the attributes in a relation, we simply list the new attribute names in parentheses, as in the following example:
TEMP ← σ Dno = 5 ( EMPLOYEE )
R ( First_name , Last_name , Salary )← π Fname , Lname , Salary ( TEMP ) These two operations are illustrated in Figure 6.2(b). If no renaming is applied, the names of the attributes in the resulting relation of a
SELECT operation are the same as those in the original relation and in the same order. For a PROJECT operation with no renaming, the resulting relation has the same attribute names as those in the projection list and in the same order in which they appear in the list.
We can also define a formal RENAME operation—which can rename either the rela- tion name or the attribute names, or both—as a unary operator. The general RENAME operation when applied to a relation R of degree n is denoted by any of the following three forms:
ρ S ( B1 , B2 , ... , Bn ) ( R ) or ρ S ( R ) or ρ ( B1 , B2 , ... , Bn ) ( R )
where the symbol ρ (rho) is used to denote the RENAME operator, S is the new rela- tion name, and B 1 ,B 2 , ..., B n are the new attribute names. The first expression renames both the relation and its attributes, the second renames the relation only, and the third renames the attributes only. If the attributes of R are (A 1 ,A 2 , ..., A n ) in that order, then each A i is renamed as B i .
In SQL, a single query typically represents a complex relational algebra expression. Renaming in SQL is accomplished by aliasing using AS , as in the following example:
SELECT
E.Fname AS First_name , E.Lname AS Last_name , E.Salary AS Salary
FROM
EMPLOYEE AS E
WHERE
E.Dno =5,
Parts
» Fundamentals_of_Database_Systems,_6th_Edition
» Characteristics of the Database Approach
» Advantages of Using the DBMS Approach
» A Brief History of Database Applications
» Schemas, Instances, and Database State
» The Three-Schema Architecture
» The Database System Environment
» Centralized and Client/Server Architectures for DBMSs
» Classification of Database Management Systems
» Domains, Attributes, Tuples, and Relations
» Key Constraints and Constraints on NULL Values
» Relational Databases and Relational Database Schemas
» Integrity, Referential Integrity, and Foreign Keys
» Update Operations, Transactions, and Dealing with Constraint Violations
» SQL Data Definition and Data Types
» Specifying Constraints in SQL
» The SELECT-FROM-WHERE Structure of Basic SQL Queries
» Ambiguous Attribute Names, Aliasing, Renaming, and Tuple Variables
» Substring Pattern Matching and Arithmetic Operators
» INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE Statements in SQL
» Comparisons Involving NULL and Three-Valued Logic
» Nested Queries, Tuples, and Set/Multiset Comparisons
» The EXISTS and UNIQUE Functions in SQL
» Joined Tables in SQL and Outer Joins
» Grouping: The GROUP BY and HAVING Clauses
» Discussion and Summary of SQL Queries
» Specifying General Constraints as Assertions in SQL
» Introduction to Triggers in SQL
» Specification of Views in SQL
» View Implementation, View Update, and Inline Views
» Schema Change Statements in SQL
» Sequences of Operations and the RENAME Operation
» The UNION, INTERSECTION, and MINUS Operations
» The CARTESIAN PRODUCT (CROSS PRODUCT) Operation
» Variations of JOIN: The EQUIJOIN and NATURAL JOIN
» Additional Relational Operations
» Examples of Queries in Relational Algebra
» The Tuple Relational Calculus
» The Domain Relational Calculus
» Using High-Level Conceptual Data Models
» Entity Types, Entity Sets, Keys, and Value Sets
» Relationship Types, Relationship Sets, Roles, and Structural Constraints
» ER Diagrams, Naming Conventions, and Design Issues
» Example of Other Notation: UML Class Diagrams
» Relationship Types of Degree Higher than Two
» Subclasses, Superclasses, and Inheritance
» Constraints on Specialization and Generalization
» Specialization and Generalization Hierarchies
» Modeling of UNION Types Using Categories
» A Sample UNIVERSITY EER Schema, Design Choices, and Formal Definitions
» Data Abstraction, Knowledge Representation, and Ontology Concepts
» ER-to-Relational Mapping Algorithm
» Discussion and Summary of Mapping for ER Model Constructs
» Mapping EER Model Constructs
» The Role of Information Systems
» The Database Design and Implementation Process
» Use of UML Diagrams as an Aid to Database Design Specification 6
» Rational Rose: A UML-Based Design Tool
» Automated Database Design Tools
» Introduction to Object-Oriented Concepts and Features
» Object Identity, and Objects versus Literals
» Complex Type Structures for Objects and Literals
» Encapsulation of Operations and Persistence of Objects
» Type Hierarchies and Inheritance
» Other Object-Oriented Concepts
» Object-Relational Features: Object Database Extensions to SQL
» Overview of the Object Model of ODMG
» Built-in Interfaces and Classes in the Object Model
» Atomic (User-Defined) Objects
» Extents, Keys, and Factory Objects
» The Object Definition Language ODL
» Differences between Conceptual Design of ODB and RDB
» Mapping an EER Schema to an ODB Schema
» Query Results and Path Expressions
» Overview of the C++ Language Binding in the ODMG Standard
» Structured, Semistructured, and Unstructured Data
» XML Hierarchical (Tree) Data Model
» Well-Formed and Valid XML Documents and XML DTD
» XPath: Specifying Path Expressions in XML
» XQuery: Specifying Queries in XML
» Extracting XML Documents from
» Database Programming: Techniques
» Retrieving Single Tuples with Embedded SQL
» Retrieving Multiple Tuples with Embedded SQL Using Cursors
» Specifying Queries at Runtime Using Dynamic SQL
» SQLJ: Embedding SQL Commands in Java
» Retrieving Multiple Tuples in SQLJ Using Iterators
» Database Programming with SQL/CLI Using C
» JDBC: SQL Function Calls for Java Programming
» Database Stored Procedures and SQL/PSM
» PHP Variables, Data Types, and Programming Constructs
» Overview of PHP Database Programming
» Imparting Clear Semantics to Attributes in Relations
» Redundant Information in Tuples and Update Anomalies
» Normal Forms Based on Primary Keys
» General Definitions of Second and Third Normal Forms
» Multivalued Dependency and Fourth Normal Form
» Join Dependencies and Fifth Normal Form
» Inference Rules for Functional Dependencies
» Minimal Sets of Functional Dependencies
» Properties of Relational Decompositions
» Dependency-Preserving Decomposition
» Dependency-Preserving and Nonadditive (Lossless) Join Decomposition into 3NF Schemas
» Problems with NULL Values and Dangling Tuples
» Discussion of Normalization Algorithms and Alternative Relational Designs
» Further Discussion of Multivalued Dependencies and 4NF
» Other Dependencies and Normal Forms
» Memory Hierarchies and Storage Devices
» Hardware Description of Disk Devices
» Magnetic Tape Storage Devices
» Placing File Records on Disk
» Files of Unordered Records (Heap Files)
» Files of Ordered Records (Sorted Files)
» External Hashing for Disk Files
» Hashing Techniques That Allow Dynamic File Expansion
» Other Primary File Organizations
» Parallelizing Disk Access Using RAID Technology
» Types of Single-Level Ordered Indexes
» Some General Issues Concerning Indexing
» Algorithms for External Sorting
» Implementing the SELECT Operation
» Implementing the JOIN Operation
» Algorithms for PROJECT and Set
» Notation for Query Trees and Query Graphs
» Heuristic Optimization of Query Trees
» Catalog Information Used in Cost Functions
» Examples of Cost Functions for SELECT
» Examples of Cost Functions for JOIN
» Example to Illustrate Cost-Based Query Optimization
» Factors That Influence Physical Database Design
» Physical Database Design Decisions
» An Overview of Database Tuning in Relational Systems
» Transactions, Database Items, Read and Write Operations, and DBMS Buffers
» Why Concurrency Control Is Needed
» Transaction and System Concepts
» Desirable Properties of Transactions
» Serial, Nonserial, and Conflict-Serializable Schedules
» Testing for Conflict Serializability of a Schedule
» How Serializability Is Used for Concurrency Control
» View Equivalence and View Serializability
» Types of Locks and System Lock Tables
» Guaranteeing Serializability by Two-Phase Locking
» Dealing with Deadlock and Starvation
» Concurrency Control Based on Timestamp Ordering
» Multiversion Concurrency Control Techniques
» Validation (Optimistic) Concurrency
» Granularity of Data Items and Multiple Granularity Locking
» Using Locks for Concurrency Control in Indexes
» Other Concurrency Control Issues
» Recovery Outline and Categorization of Recovery Algorithms
» Caching (Buffering) of Disk Blocks
» Write-Ahead Logging, Steal/No-Steal, and Force/No-Force
» Transaction Rollback and Cascading Rollback
» NO-UNDO/REDO Recovery Based on Deferred Update
» Recovery Techniques Based on Immediate Update
» The ARIES Recovery Algorithm
» Recovery in Multidatabase Systems
» Introduction to Database Security Issues 1
» Discretionary Access Control Based on Granting and Revoking Privileges
» Mandatory Access Control and Role-Based Access Control for Multilevel Security
» Introduction to Statistical Database Security
» Introduction to Flow Control
» Encryption and Public Key Infrastructures
» Challenges of Database Security
» Distributed Database Concepts 1
» Types of Distributed Database Systems
» Distributed Database Architectures
» Data Replication and Allocation
» Example of Fragmentation, Allocation, and Replication
» Query Processing and Optimization in Distributed Databases
» Overview of Transaction Management in Distributed Databases
» Overview of Concurrency Control and Recovery in Distributed Databases
» Current Trends in Distributed Databases
» Distributed Databases in Oracle 13
» Generalized Model for Active Databases and Oracle Triggers
» Design and Implementation Issues for Active Databases
» Examples of Statement-Level Active Rules
» Time Representation, Calendars, and Time Dimensions
» Incorporating Time in Relational Databases Using Tuple Versioning
» Incorporating Time in Object-Oriented Databases Using Attribute Versioning
» Temporal Querying Constructs and the TSQL2 Language
» Spatial Database Concepts 24
» Multimedia Database Concepts
» Clausal Form and Horn Clauses
» Datalog Programs and Their Safety
» Evaluation of Nonrecursive Datalog Queries
» Introduction to Information Retrieval
» Types of Queries in IR Systems
» Evaluation Measures of Search Relevance
» Web Analysis and Its Relationship to Information Retrieval
» Analyzing the Link Structure of Web Pages
» Approaches to Web Content Analysis
» Trends in Information Retrieval
» Data Mining as a Part of the Knowledge
» Goals of Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery
» Types of Knowledge Discovered during Data Mining
» Market-Basket Model, Support, and Confidence
» Frequent-Pattern (FP) Tree and FP-Growth Algorithm
» Other Types of Association Rules
» Approaches to Other Data Mining Problems
» Commercial Data Mining Tools
» Data Modeling for Data Warehouses
» Difficulties of Implementing Data Warehouses
» Grouping, Aggregation, and Database Modification in QBE
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