The SELECT Operation
6.1.1 The SELECT Operation
The SELECT operation is used to choose a subset of the tuples from a relation that satisfies a selection condition. 3 One can consider the SELECT operation to be a filter that keeps only those tuples that satisfy a qualifying condition. Alternatively, we can consider the SELECT operation to restrict the tuples in a relation to only those tuples that satisfy the condition. The SELECT operation can also be visualized as a horizontal partition of the relation into two sets of tuples—those tuples that sat- isfy the condition and are selected, and those tuples that do not satisfy the condition and are discarded. For example, to select the EMPLOYEE tuples whose department is
4 , or those whose salary is greater than $30,000, we can individually specify each of these two conditions with a SELECT operation as follows:
σ Dno = 4 ( EMPLOYEE ) σ Salary > 30000 ( EMPLOYEE )
In general, the SELECT operation is denoted by σ < selection condition > ( R )
where the symbol σ (sigma) is used to denote the SELECT operator and the selec- tion condition is a Boolean expression (condition) specified on the attributes of relation R. Notice that R is generally a relational algebra expression whose result is a
relation—the simplest such expression is just the name of a database relation. The relation resulting from the SELECT operation has the same attributes as R.
The Boolean expression specified in <selection condition> is made up of a number of clauses of the form
<attribute name> <comparison op> <constant value> or <attribute name> <comparison op> <attribute name>
2 In this chapter no familiarity with first-order predicate calculus—which deals with quantified variables and values—is assumed.
148 Chapter 6 The Relational Algebra and Relational Calculus
where <attribute name> is the name of an attribute of R, <comparison op> is nor- mally one of the operators {=, <, ≤, >, ≥, ≠}, and <constant value> is a constant value from the attribute domain. Clauses can be connected by the standard Boolean oper- ators and, or, and not to form a general selection condition. For example, to select the tuples for all employees who either work in department 4 and make over $25,000 per year, or work in department 5 and make over $30,000, we can specify the following SELECT operation:
σ ( Dno = 4 AND Salary > 25000 ) OR ( Dno = 5 AND Salary > 30000 ) ( EMPLOYEE ) The result is shown in Figure 6.1(a). Notice that all the comparison operators in the set {=, <, ≤, >, ≥, ≠} can apply to
attributes whose domains are ordered values, such as numeric or date domains. Domains of strings of characters are also considered to be ordered based on the col- lating sequence of the characters. If the domain of an attribute is a set of unordered values, then only the comparison operators in the set {=, ≠} can be used. An exam- ple of an unordered domain is the domain Color = { ‘red’, ‘blue’, ‘green’, ‘white’, ‘yel- low’, ...}, where no order is specified among the various colors. Some domains allow additional types of comparison operators; for example, a domain of character strings may allow the comparison operator SUBSTRING_OF .
In general, the result of a SELECT operation can be determined as follows. The <selection condition> is applied independently to each individual tuple t in R. This is done by substituting each occurrence of an attribute A i in the selection condition with its value in the tuple t[A i ]. If the condition evaluates to TRUE , then tuple t is
Figure 6.1
Results of SELECT and PROJECT operations. (a) σ (Dno=4 AND Salary>25000) OR (Dno=5 AND Salary>30000) (EMPLOYEE). (b) π Lname, Fname, Salary (EMPLOYEE). (c) π Sex, Salary (EMPLOYEE).
(a)
Salary Super_ssn Dno Franklin
Fname Minit Lname
T Wong
1955-12-08 638 Voss, Houston, TX
F 43000 888665555 4 Ramesh
S Wallace
1941-06-20 291 Berry, Bellaire, TX
K Narayan 666884444 1962-09-15 975 Fire Oak, Humble, TX
Lname Fname Salary
Sex
Salary
Smith John 30000
Wong Franklin 40000
Zelaya Alicia 25000
F 25000
Wallace Jennifer 43000
F 43000
Narayan Ramesh 38000
English Joyce 25000
Jabbar Ahmad 25000
6.1 Unary Relational Operations: SELECT and PROJECT 149
selected . All the selected tuples appear in the result of the SELECT operation. The Boolean conditions AND , OR , and NOT have their normal interpretation, as follows:
(cond1 AND cond2) is TRUE if both (cond1) and (cond2) are TRUE ; other- wise, it is FALSE .
(cond1 OR cond2) is TRUE if either (cond1) or (cond2) or both are TRUE ; otherwise, it is FALSE .
( NOT cond) is TRUE if cond is FALSE ; otherwise, it is FALSE . The SELECT operator is unary; that is, it is applied to a single relation. Moreover,
the selection operation is applied to each tuple individually; hence, selection condi- tions cannot involve more than one tuple. The degree of the relation resulting from
a SELECT operation—its number of attributes—is the same as the degree of R. The number of tuples in the resulting relation is always less than or equal to the number of tuples in R. That is, |σ c (R)| ≤ |R| for any condition C. The fraction of tuples selected by a selection condition is referred to as the selectivity of the condition.
Notice that the SELECT operation is commutative; that is, σ < cond1 > ( σ < cond2 > ( R )) = σ < cond2 > ( σ < cond1 > ( R )) Hence, a sequence of SELECT s can be applied in any order. In addition, we can
always combine a cascade (or sequence) of SELECT operations into a single SELECT operation with a conjunctive ( AND ) condition; that is,
σ < cond1 > ( σ < cond2 > ( ... ( σ < condn > ( R )) ... )) = σ < cond1 > AND < cond2 > AND ...AND < condn > ( R ) In SQL, the SELECT condition is typically specified in the WHERE clause of a query.
For example, the following operation: σ Dno = 4 AND Salary > 25000 ( EMPLOYEE ) would correspond to the following SQL query: SELECT
* FROM
EMPLOYEE WHERE
Dno =4 AND Salary >25000;
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