think about this”. The variations in word order inside clauses can be accounted for some reasons. It is known that initial position in the English clause is
meaningful since it has a Thematic function. Certain textual element orients the clause logically that means they are inherently thematic. Other textual and
interpersonal elements are used to relate semantically the clause with preceding text or to express the speaker‟s angle. It also means they are characteristically
thematic. The last characteristic of thematic category is, of course, wh-elements.
2.4 Stuttering as Psychological Disorder
“Stuttering is disorder of the flow of speaking with the high frequency of repetition or longing for voice, syllables or words that happens to the people who
have difficulty to start even a word” Bogue, 2009. When the stuttering happens, it can be followed by a feeling of
suffocating, heavy breath Shell, 2005, fast blinking, vibration on the lips and jaw, or struggling on face or upper body as an effort to speak. In a particular
situation, like talking to a group of people or superior people, the stutterers tend to worsen the stuttering Mahr Torosian, 1991. However, in a certain situation
like singing or speaking by themselves, it is able to improve the fluency in speaking Parker Parker, 2002.
If people with stuttering can easily sing and speak alone fluently, it means that they do not have organic malfunction or organic inherent. If the activity of
fluent singing and speaking alone can be proved, the disorder is part of mental not physical disorder Bogue, 2009.
Guitar 2006 states that age of 3 is the stage of speech development for children with the addition of the language. Another development can give stress
for children as the earlier symptom of stuttering. On the age of 6 to 8, children who receive many critics from their environment create the worse stuttering
Guitar, 2006. According to Bogue, critics from the environment are for example high frequency of critics from own parents Bogue, 2009. On the teenager stage,
the feeling of frustration or embarrassing moment that has relation with stuttering can create the negative feeling and behavior Guitar, 2006.
The comparison of people with stuttering is 4:1 for male and female Broen Coleman, 1973 that has the relation with the childhood trauma Bogue,
2009. This is caused by three main things. First, during the childhood, they have different congenital born in the ability in language and speaking. Second, parents,
family members and others react differently toward the male children than female ones. Last, male has possibility to have stuttering than the female as basically
male has different reaction to others Conture Guitar, 2007. The research says that the arising of the stutterer disorder is from a deep-
seated dysphemia, from emotional conflict in which the hesitant speech reflects an underlying anxiety, and from environmental factors which tend to interfere
with the child‟s mastery of the fluency aspect of speech learning Riper, 1963. Based on the explanation, the stuttering that is being discussed in this study is the
stuttering that is part of the psychological disorder. The psychological disorder shows the trauma of the previous stage of life.
The focus on this study shows that the king suffers from the stuttering because of the traumatic during his childhood. He has got suppression during the
childhood that he is forced to be right-handed though originally he is left-handed. Furthermore, he is also forced to straight his legs while he has disorder in
walking straightly. Therefore, Riper says that besides shock, fright and illness, the stuttering may be depicted by many kinds of symbolic and cumulative factors
Riper, 1963. Symbol shows the emotional causes that the stuttering focuses in situations that symbolize the conflict.
The other reason why someone can have stuttering is because of depression. Depression has also been considered a possible process that may
occur with stuttering Gayle Back, 2013. Depression is characterized by five or more symptoms that are not similar to one‟s previous functioning during a two
week period. The examples are like depressed mood, loss of interest or pleasure, insomnia and loss of energy.
Anxiety has been the common characteristic for speakers who stutter. It has been analyzed by the researchers for many years Gayle Back, 2013. The
stutterers usually feel worry about the thing that is not supposed to be worried. They tend to be angry easily over the simple thing.
Two journals have research about the relation among communication, anxiety, and depression between the people who stutter and the people who does
not stutter. The research finds that people who stutter have anxiety that tend to be negative Miller Watson, 1992. Moreover, another research says that through
the stuttering in the social anxiety, it is found that people who stutter have over anxiety and negative judgment to the social interactive Menzies, Onslowa,
Messenger, 2004. In the study of psycholinguistics, the stuttering is a part of language
disorder Field, 2003. Words may be stressed erratically of left incomplete as a result of the general hesitancy of speech that leads to irregularities of rhythm and
intonation. Since the sufferers are aware of this condition, they may paraphrase or use general terms to avoid words that they anticipate will be difficult. The
stutterers feel anxiety in the way they overestimate the severity of their symptoms. They also feel as bad listeners because they feel that they have to
focus on their own production Field, 2003. The journal published by British Medical Journal states that the stuttering
happens as the psychological condition. It usually happens because of the fear of one or other parent who is usually the father. The other cases are the feeling of
inferiority British Medical Journal: 1965. The childhood trauma happens in this psychological aspect. An adult must have stuttering when he or she has tendency
to have oppression in his or her childhood. In order to overcome the stuttering disorder, the clinicians try the best
method. Unfortunately, there are many debates in determining the best method overcoming the stuttering. There are many disagreements among the clinicians
and the researchers in finding the best method to be able to get the outcomes of the treatment. Examples include the appropriate means for collecting treatment
outcomes data, the nature of the data that are collected, the value of existing data in the published literature, the role of the clinician and client in providing
treatment outcomes data, and, ultimately, the interpretation of those data Howell, 2005. Therefore, this study offers the combination of method in possibility
effective to overcome the stuttering. In fact, the stutterers have the right to choose the effective treatment to be
able to overcome their disorder. They have to feel comfortable with the methods offered by the therapists or in other word, clinicians. The feeling of comfortable
has significant role in achieving the progress of the medication. Moreover, the motivation to overcome their stuttering is also varied. Whatever the reasons for
their overcoming from the disorder, there are research studies designed to systematically survey people who stutter regarding the goals they have for speech
therapy, their desired outcomes from treatment, and which approaches to treatment they prefer Howell, 2005.
People who stutter have negative thought that their surrounding will mock them. That thought makes them afraid to their surroundings where people who
stutter associate the talking experience as a bad experience which is anxiety. As a consequence, people who stutter will be stiff, afraid to go outside and afraid to
read Blood, Susman, Simpson, Blood, 1994. To sum up with, stuttering happens because of talking to a group of
people or superior ones because the stutterer feels afraid that he might be disappointed. It is also known that male stutterer has dominant number than
female mostly because childhood trauma pointing that male has to be more superior to female. This kind of stuttering is part of psychological disorder that
has the symptom such as depression, anxiety and feeling inferiority. These symptoms are as the result from the parent oppression especially the father.
Fortunately, there is a kind of stuttering that can be cured as long as the stutterer still sings and speaks alone fluently.
Stuttering does not only happen psychologically which means that the stutterer feels oppressed based on the childhood trauma. The stuttering disorder
can also be explained through the neurology aspect. Since this study deals with PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
the linguistic aspect, therefore neurolinguistics is needed to be able to analyze what happens to the human brain in people with stuttering.
2.4.1 The Treatment for Stutterers
The stutterers are not easy to deal with particular method or even the background of the reason may be varied. There are several approaches in
overcoming the stuttering based on the need of the patient. This study offers three different treatments in order to overcome the stuttering.
2.4.3.1 Valsalva Mechanism
The first treatment is the result of the personal experience of a licensed Speech-Language Pathologist, William D. Parry, who had experienced stuttering
when he was 4 years old. He conducts the treatment by himself using the method called Valsalva mechanism. “Valsalva mechanism is a neurologically coordinated
term of muscles throughout the body which act together in the performance of a valsalva maneuver” Parry, 2011. The purpose of Valsalva maneuver is to
increase air pressure in the lungs, in order to help a person exert physical effort or force things out of the body.
The work of the valsalva maneuver is explained through the several mechanism.
The abdominal muscles are expected to be tightening up, squeezing the intestines and organs in the abdominal cavity. It is done so that they press
upward against the diaphragm which is the dome-shaped muscles separating the abdominal cavity from the chest cavity. It causes the
diaphragm to enlarge upward, compressing the chest cavity. Moreover, certain chest muscles also tighten to bring the rib cage down, which
compresses the chest cavity even more Parry, 2011. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
Diagram 1.2.4.3.1 A Valsalva Maneuver Parry, 2011
Until a particular moment, the larynx is neurologically programmed to close tightly around the upper airway to keep the air in the lungs from escaping.
When the abdominal muscles squeeze more, the air pressure becomes great in the lungs from escaping. This activity makes the larynx close tighter. This is called
“effort closure” Parry, 2011. It is globally known that the function of larynx is to form the phonation.
However when it is conducted valsava maneuver, the mechanism is different with what happen to the phonation process. “The entire inside of the larynx closes
tightly, like a fist, to block the air completely. If for some reason your lips or tongue are blocking the airway when you start a Valsalva maneuver, they will be
recruited to continue the closure. They will automatically press harder and harder to keep the air from escaping” Parry, 2011.
Relating to the stuttering, valsalva mechanism tries to trick the neuron about the focus activity that the person might have repeatedly.
It is like the game of „pointing to the finger‟ and „making a fist‟. When a person is trained to point to the finger repeatedly and then the trainer
suddenly commands to make a fist, then the result is that the person might have possibility to point the finger. It is because the brain receives the
same command in a row and it cannot be ready to receive another sudden command. The trick is part of the neurology case Parry, 2011.
It also happens when overcoming the stuttering. The person who stutters need a distraction neurologically therefore they will not focus too much on what will
they say. 2.4.3.2
The Van Riperian Method Most of the speech therapists do the same following mechanism such as
timing mechanism, both manual and automatic devices, and breathing and relaxation techniques are once again being introduced to the stutterers who seek
for help. However, in the implication, it always depends on the therapist own method to approach the patient. Therefore, the author of this method believes that
“the following factors such as speech pathologists, those gadgets, tricks, or other distractions devices are not the most advantageous methods that is available to
stutterers” Helliesen, 2008. The Van Riperian method is a “take control and self-responsibility”
method that is for controlling one‟s own speech and destiny. To control the stuttering, certain techniques are taught to the stutterers. In this way, it
allows them to be the effective communicator, therefore, decreasing the negative emotions and symptomatology that are associated with stutterers.
Being an effective communicator, someone must provide the verbal
communication with little distraction that is caused by the stutterer‟s speech Helliesen, 2008.
Being knowledgeable and one whom the stutterers can trust and respect as partner in the therapy are the goals that therapist should do to guide the stutterers
out of the “swamp of despair” Helliesen, 2008. Providing motivation is also part of therapist role to the stutterer by reinforcing those moments of triumph and
helping the stutterers analyze speech therapy failures and turn them into success. The therapists must know the basic symptom from the stutterers. They
have to identify the stutterers‟ characteristics that are mostly negative emotion such as penalty, frustration, anxiety, guilt and hostility. This step is believed to
help to maintain the stuttering because those symptoms should be reduced during the therapy. “Desencitization therapy occurs continually as therapy proceeds, and
it allows the stutterers to look more objectively at this speech as they progresses through the various step” Helliesen, 2008.
2.5 Related studies
