23 Furthermore, Pritchard Colin 2004 explains that there are two types of
sexual abuse. They are intra-familial abuse and extra-familial abuse. First is intra- familial abuse, “it is sexual abuse by a blood relative” p.124. Here, the
perpetrators are part of the child’s nuclear family. It may also encompass members of a child’s extended family such as uncles, aunts, grandfathers, and
cousins. The second type is extra-familial abuse. Extra-familial abuse is done by someone outside the child’s family.
4 Neglect
Wilson et al 1996 say that neglect is an inadequate supervision and lack of attention to the physical and emotional needs of the child p.556. In other
words, it is a failure of the caregiver or the parents to provide minimal care and support for the child. Unfortunately, neglect is the most frequent form of child
abuse in most child abuse cases.
4. Motivation
Motivation comes from Latin word, “moveo”. Psychologists have created many terms and definitions regarding motivation. Motivation in Huffman, Vernoy
and Vernoy’s Psychology in Action 1997 refers to “factors within an individual such as needs, desires, and interests that activate, maintain, and direct behavior
toward a goal” p.364. This statement is in accordance with Beck 1978, who says, “Motivation is broadly concerned with the contemporary determinants of
choice direction, persistence, and vigor of goal-directed behavior” p.24. Vernoy and Beck both share the idea that motivation is a factor that causes a
24 person to do something to achieve a certain goal. It is seen as an internal factor
that “moves” human beings and animals toward the goal to be achieved. Motivation makes a human being behave in a specific behavior, drives them to
maintain their efforts and prevents them from losing their way in the process of achieving their goal.
According to Worchel and Shebilske 1989, “Psychologists have used the term motive to describe the condition that energizes and directs the behavior of
organism” p.373. Research in motivation attemps to answer the ‘why’ and ‘what causes’ questions about human and animal behavior. According to Murray 1964,
“motivation is desire” p.7. Motivation is intrinsic in all kinds of behavior: learning, performing, perceiving, attending, remembering, forgetting, thinking,
creating, and feeling. Motivation affects someone’s behavior because motivation may function as an incentive for someone to behave in a certain manner. That is
why motivation always influences someone’s behavior. Human behavior is driven by many different motives. Worchel and
Shebilske 1989 place motives into two groups: first, primary motives, “which concern our biological needs, such as hunger, thirst, sexual desire, etc; these
motives are usually unlearned, common to all animals, and vital for the survival of the organism or the species” p.374. Second, social motives, “the motives that
come from learning and social interaction, includes the needs for affiliation, aggression, and achievement” p.374.
There are basically two approaches to the study of motivation, biological theories including instinct-theory and drive-reduction theory and psychosocial
25 theories including incentive theory and cognitive theory. Worchel and Shebilske
1989 defined incentive as “an external stimulus that has the capacity to motivate behavior” p.376. Incentive theory states that behaviors are not only motivated
and determined by internal needs, but also external events such as reinforcement. In relation to Worchel and Shebilske’s theory, Huffman, et al 1997 states
that there are two kinds of motivation, namely intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation is “the desire to perform an act for its own sake. Motivation is derived
from the satisfaction arising out the behavior itself” p.377. Whereas extrinsic motivation is “the desire to perform an act because of external rewards or
avoidance of punishment. Motivation is not inherent in the behavior itself” p.377.
The word “behavior” is repeatedly mentioned when discussing motivations. A person’s specific behavior is a revelation of hisher motivation.
This is why we need to discuss behavior when discussing motivation. Carlson 1994 states that there are eight types of behavior p.256 – p.258. They are sleep
behavior, reproductive behavior, ingestive behavior, learning behavior, verbal behavior, mental disorder behavior, emotional behavior, and aggressive behavior.
In this study, we only need to discuss verbal behavior, emotional behavior and aggressive behavior.
Verbal behavior constitutes one of the most important classes of human social behavior. The basic function of verbal behavior is to communicate with
others and to see the effect of the communication on them. When we are engaged in a communication to someone, we almost always expect that our speech
26 increases stimulus on himher. Then we expect himher to behave in a particular
way and engage with the communication that we create. Verbal behaviors consist of talking, understanding speech, reading, and writing.
Emotional behavior is behavior that is caused by emotional feelings. Carlson 1994 says that emotion is related to behavior, because emotion
influences someone’s behavior p.257. The behavior that is influenced by emotion functions as a response to someone’s emotion. Most people have argued
that emotion is simply another term for motivation. According to Buck, although motivation and emotion may be related, but they are not the same thing. He
defines motivation as arousal or energy that directs behavior as cited in Worchel and Shebilske, 1989, p.417.
Aggressive behavior is a behavior that is caused by a desire to do harm to others. Aggression is related to emotion. According to Spear, Penrod, and Baker
1988, “aggression is behavior that is marked by the intention of causing harm, whether physical, material, or psychological harm” p.515. Aggression is
revealed in many manners, such as hitting or frightening the victim. Spear, et al 1988 also mentions that “there are two types of aggressions that are recognized.
The first one is “instrumental aggression behavior, a type of aggression that serves many purposes, for example, for self defense” p.515. Here, the aggression is not
done to cause harm for the victim. The second one is “hostile aggression behavior, causing harm or even injury to the victim” p.515. Hostile aggression is caused
by factors such as anger and pain. There are some purposes of this type of aggression, for example, to hurt a victim who has frustrated the aggressor.
27 Berkowitz 1995 says that “aggressive behavior usually has some purposes that
want to be obtained. The purpose is useful for the present and the future situation for the aggressor” p.412.
Abusive behaviors can be considered as aggressive behavior in that they are similar aim to cause harm to the victim. Crosson and Tower 2008 states, “the
cause of physical abuse can be categorized in three. They are the psychodynamic or character-trait models, the interactional models, and the environmental
sociological culturally based models” p.97. The first is the psychodynamic or character-trait models; this model of abuse attributes the abuse to characteristics
of the abusive parents. The second is the interactional models. It considers how the interactions between the victim and the perpetrator or the dynamics within the
family may give rise to an abusive situation. The third is the environmental sociological culturally based models, which focuses on the part that the milieu,
and stressors within the milieu, plays in the abuse. Theory of motivation is needed in this study to analyze the reasons why
Carmen, Eastman, and Georgie Porgie perform the abusive acts toward Clare.
C. Theoretical Framework
All the theories reviewed above have been deemed as important to assist the writer to account for the analysis and thus all those theories will be taken into
consideration. This study on the novel Ugly will mainly employ a psychological approach as part of the critical approach to answer the problems formulated in
