Reported Speech An Analysis On Students’ Errors In Learning Reported Speech Of Statements (A Case Study At The First Year Students Of Smk Bintang Nusantara Pondok Aren)

few changes are necessary; often a pronoun has to be changed and the verb is usually moved back a tense, where possible. 21 In indirect speech there are no quotation marks. The first word of the indirect speech is not capitalized, and the reporting statement is not followed by a comma. Note that indirect speech is presented as a noun clause and can be introduced by the word that. That is sometimes omitted in conversation and informal writing. Examples: “Taylor said that he wanted to keep going to public school. Taylor told his mother that he wanted to keep going to public school. Taylor told Chuck and Marie that he wouldn’t go.” 22 There is no comma after say in indirect speech, that can usually be omitted after say and tell + object. But it should be kept after other verbs: complain, explain, object, point out, protest, etc. 23 To indicate that is quoting or reporting what someone has said or thought by using a reporting verb, every reporting clause contains a reporting verb. Here is a list of reporting verbs which can be used to report what people say: Table 2.1 The List of Reporting Verbs Acknowledge Add Admit Advise Agree Announce Answer Argue Ask Assert Assure Concede Confess Confirm Continue Convince Cry Declare Demand Deny Describe Direct Imply Inform Inquire Insists Instruct Invite Maintain Mention Mumble Murmur Mutter Predict Proclaim Promise Prophesy Propose Reassure Recall Recite Recommend Record Refuse Say Scream Shout Shriek State Stipulate Suggest Swear Teach Tell Threaten 21 http:www.usingenglish.comglossaryreported-speech.html , April 30, 2013. 22 Maurer, op. cit., p. 452 23 Martinet, loc. cit. Beg Begin Boast Call Complain Discuss Dispute Enquire Explain Note Notify Object observe Order Remark Remind Repeat Reply Report Request Urge Vow Wail Warn yell It is taken from Collins Cobuild Grammar which is written by John Sinclair. 24 The following are the sequence changes of formulation of reported speech of statement: a. Changing all pronouns and possessive adjectives to adjust in reported statement All pronouns are changed to show the correct relationship between the original information and the reported information. Usually, the first pronoun is changed into the third pronoun. Third person pronouns must show clearly whom they refers to. 25 Pronouns and possessive adjectives usually change from first or second to third person except when the speaker is reporting his own words: 26 Examples: He said, „I’ve forgotten the combination of my safe’ = He said that he had forgotten the combination of his safe. I said, „I like my new house = I said that I liked my new house. speaker reporting his own words Here is some common change in pronouns and possessive adjectives: 24 John Sinclair, Collins Cobuild Grammar, London: Harper Collins, 1990, p. 314. 25 Linton stone, Cambridge Proficiency English, London: The Macmillan Press Limited, 1967, p. 131. 26 Martinet, op. cit., p. 273. Table 2.2 The Changes in Pronouns and Possessive Adjectives It is taken from Grammar for English Language Teacher which is written by Martin Parrot. 27 Then, pronouns and possessive adjectives, of the 1 st and 2 nd persons, are all turned into the 3 rd persons in the indirect form, as follows: 28 a. I, you, singular my, your become he, she, his, her, their. b. We, you plural, our, your become they, their. b. Changing the verb tenses if the reporting verbs are in the past. When the verb in the main clause is in the past, the verb in the noun clause is often shifted to one of the past tenses. 29 People do not normally use the same tenses as someo ne’s original speech, because they are not talking in the same time as the speaker was. 27 Martin Parrot, Grammar for English Language Teacher, London: Cambridge University Press, 2000, p. 223. 28 Llewelyn Tipping and Menezes, Matriculation English, London: Macmillan, 1937, 2 nd ed, p. 108. 29 Werner, Patricia K, John P. Nelson, Mosaic 2 Grammar, New York: Mc Graw-Hill Contemporary, 2002, 4 th ed, p. 212. Direct Pronouns Indirect Pronouns I He or she Me Him or her My His or her we They Table 2.3 The Changes of Tenses Direct Speech Indirect Speech Simple present „I never eat meat,’ he explained Present continuous „I’m waiting for Ann,’ he said Present perfect „I have found a flat,’ he said Present perfect continuous He said, „I’ve been waiting for ages’ Simple past „I took it home with me,’ she said Future He said, „I willshall be in Paris on Monday’ Future continuous „I willshall be using the car myself on the 24 th ,’ she said But note, conditional I said, „I wouldshould like to see it’ Simple past = He explained that he never ate meat. Past continuous = He said that he was waiting for Ann. Past perfect = He said that he had found a flat. Past perfect continuous = He said he had been waiting for ages. Past perfect = She said she had taken it home with her. Conditional = he said he would be in Paris on Monday. Conditional continuous = She said she’d be using the car herself on the 24 th . Conditional = I said I wouldshould like to see it. It is taken from Grammar for English Language Teacher which is written by Martin Parrot. 30 If someone is reporting something and heshe is feeling that it is true, it does not need changing tenses of the verb. 30 Martinet, op. cit., p. 270. “Tom said, “New York is bigger than London.” Direct Tom said that New York is or was bigger than London. Indirect ” 31 If reporting verbs of direct speech are in the present, present perfect, and future tense, it does not make any changes in noun clause, or the tense used are usually same as the speaker’s exact words. When the reporting verb is simple present, present perfect, or future, the noun clause verb is not changed. 32 She says, “I watch TV everyday.” Direct She says that she watches TV everyday. Indirect c. Changing the time expressions and other expressions. Table 2.4 The Changes of TimePlace Expression It is taken from Grammar for English Language Teacher which is written by Martin Parrot. 33 31 Raymond Murphy, English Grammar in Use: A Self-Study Reference and Practice Book for Intermediate Students, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986, p. 96. 32 Azar, op. cit., p. 254. 33 Martinet, op. cit., p. 274. Direct Indirect Today Yesterday The day before yesterday Tomorrow The day after tomorrow Next weekyear etc. Last weekyear etc. A year ago etc. That day The day before Two days before The next daythe following day In two days’ time The following weekyear etc. The previous weekyear etc. A year beforethe previous year Examples: „I saw her the day before yesterday,’ he said = He said he’d seen her two days before. „I’ll do it tomorrow,’ he promised = he promised that he would do it the next day. „I’m starting the day after tomorrow, mother,’ he said = He told his mother that he was starting in two days’ time. She said, „My father died a year ago’ = She said that her father had died a year beforethe previous year. 34 Here can become there but only when it is clear what place is meant: At the station he said, „I’ll be here again tomorrow’ = He said that he’d be there again next day. Usually here has to be replaced by some phrase: „She said, „You can sit here, Tom’ = She told Tom that he could sit beside her etc. But He said, „Come here, boys’ would normally be reported: He called the boys. 35

C. The Students’ Errors in Learning Reported Speech of Statements

1. The Definitions of Error

There are some definitions of error which are explained by some experts. Errors can be defined as an indicator of learning failure as William T. Littlewood saw errors as the signs of learning failure. 36 David Crystal has same opinion that “Error produced by someone learning a language, especially foreign language”. 37 34 Ibid. 35 Ibid., p. 275. 36 William T. Littlewood, Foreign and Second Language Learning: Language-acquisition research and its implications for the classroom, Cambridge University Press, 1988, p. 22. 37 David Crystal, An Encyclopedic Dictionary of Language and Languages, Oxford: Blackwell, 1992, p. 125. According to Jeremy Harmer, errors ar e part of the student’s inter lingua that is the version of the language which a learner has at anyone stage of development, and which is continually reshaped as he or she aims toward full mastery. 38 Meanwhile, Douglas Brown who pays attention on the interlingua competence of the learner, states that an error is noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker, reflecting the interlingua competence of the learner. 39 From all definitions above, it can be comprehended that error is a deviation that produced by foreign language learner which is caused by low interlingua competence of the learner.

2. The Difference between Error and Mistake

At this term, it is important to distinguish between error and mistake. H. Douglas Brown said a mistake refers to a performance error that is either a random guess or slip; it is a failure to utilize a known system correctly. An error is a noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker, reflecting the Interlingua competence of the learner.” 40 In same book, Edge distinguishes between error and mistake in simple statement. He states that a slip or mistake is what a learner can self-correct and error is what a learner can not self corrected. 41 Meanwhile, James defines errors as a systematic mistakes due to lack of language competence, while mistakes refer to performance errors because of a random guess or slip. Error can not be self corrected; mistakes can be self-corrected if the deviation is pointed out to the speaker. 42 38 Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching, New York: Pearson Education Limited, 2001, p. 34. 39 H. Douglas Brown, Principle of Language and Teaching, 4 th ed., New York: A Pearson Education Company, 2000, p. 215. 40 Ibid., p. 205. 41 Ibid., p. 217. 42 Ibid. From the statement above, it can be elaborated that error and mistake are different. The difference is in making correctness. Error is a moment when a learner can not self-correct because of low interlingua competence the learner, whereas mistake is a moment when a learner can self-correct if the deviation which heshe made is pointed out.

3. The Causes of Error

There are many causes of error which are produced by language learners. One case when a learner thinks that hisher native language is similar with the target language. Heshe will produce sentence in target language but under interference of hisher native language, so the sentence may produce ambiguity in meaning. The experts call this cause of error as overgeneralization. Besides interference of native language toward the target language, one may becomes a cause of error is when a learner produces target language before learning the grammatical form of it. The learner will also make errors if the target language is complicated. It means that target language has various grammar based on time and function, whereas the native language doesn’t adopt differentiation of grammar like that. Brown divides causes of errors such as: a. Interlingual Transfer Interlingual transfer is a significant source of error for all learners. The beginning stages of learning a second language are especially vulnerable to interlingual transfer from native language or interference. In early stages, before the system of the second language is familiar, native language is the only previous linguistic upon which learner draw. For example English learner says “sheep” for “ship” or the book of jack instead of „Jack’s book” b. Intralingual Transfer Intralingual transfer is a major part in second language learning. Once learners have begun to acquire parts of new system, more and more intralingual transfer within the target language is manifested such as past tense form of verb following a modal, present tense –s on a verb following a modal, -ing on a verb following a modal, are for be following will, past tense form of a verb following do, -ing on a verb following modal, present tense –s on a verb following do, present tense –s on a verb following be, present tense form of a verb following be. c. Context of Learning Context refers to the classroom with its teacher and its material in the case of school learning or the social situation in the case of untutored second language learning. Students often make error because of a misleading explanation from the teacher, faulty of presentation of a structure or word in a textbook, or even because of a pattern that was memorized in a drill but improperly contextualized. For example two vocabulary items presented contiguously; point at and point out might in later recall confused simply because of the contiguity of presentation. d. Communication Strategies Communication strategies were defined and related to learning styles. Learners obviously use production strategies in order to enhance getting their message across, but at time these technique can themselves become a source of error. 43 It can be elaborated that errors can occur because of three aspects; they are native language, language learner, and target language. Native language may contribute to interfere the learner in producing target language. Language learner who has not mastered the target language yet will produce errors because of hisher incomplete knowledge toward the target language. Target language which has complicated grammar will be inclined to cause difficulties for the learner, so heshe will produce errors because of it.

4. The Types of Error

Dullay and Burtand Krashen in lengthly Consideration of Errors described three major types of taxonomy: error types based on linguistic category, surface strategy taxonomy, error types based on comparative taxonomy. 44 In this research, surface strategy taxonomy will be used to classify the students’ error. The surface strategy taxonomy focuses on the ways surface strategy are changed. 43 Ibid., p. 224.