The right procedures of materials development will result in good instructional materials. Nunan 2004 argues that in order to create learning
opportunities in the classroom, teachers should transform real-world task into pedagogical tasks. He proposes six steps or the sequence in developing units of
work in a task-based classroom. The first step is schema building. In this step an instructional developer develops a number of schema-building exercises to
introduce a topic, set the context for the task, and introduce some of the key vocabulary and expressions the students need to complete a task. The second step
is to provide the students with controlled practice using the target language vocabulary, structures, and functions. The third step involves the students in
intensive listening practice in which the students are exposed to authentic or simulated conversations. The fourth step focuses on linguistic elements. Here the
students are supposed to take part in a sequence of exercise focusing on one or more linguistic elements. The next step is the time for the students to engage in
freer practice. The students are encouraged to improvise, using whatever language they have to complete a task. Lastly, the students are introduced to the
pedagogical task itself. It involves group work discussion and decision making task.
In relation to the instructional sequence outlined above, there are underlying principles that are drawn as mentioned by Nunan 2004. The first
principle is scaffolding. Lessons and materials should provide supporting frameworks within which the learning takes place. At the beginning of the
learning process, learners should not be expected to produce language that has not been introduced either explicitly or implicitly. The second principle is task
dependency. Within a lesson, on task should grow out of, and build upon, the ones that have gone before. The third principle is recycling. Recycling language
maximizes opportunities for learning and activates the „organic‟ learning
principle. The fourth principle is activating learning. Learners learn best by actively using the language they are learning. Based on the concept of experiential
learning, learners learn best through doing – through actively constructing their
own knowledge rather than having it transmitted to them by the teacher. The fifth principle is integration. Learners should be taught in ways that make clear the
relationships between linguistic form communicative function and semantic meaning. The sixth principle is reproduction to creation. Learners should be
encouraged to move from reproductive to creative language use. In reproductive tasks, learners reproduce language models provided by the teacher, the textbook
or the tape. In creative tasks, learners are recombining familiar elements in novel ways. The last principle is reflection. Learners should be given opportunities to
reflect on what they have learned and how well they are doing.
3. CALL
Beatty 2003, p.7 defines Computer Assisted Language Learning CALL as “any process in which a learner uses a computer and, as a result, improves his
or her language”. Meanwhile, Egbert 2005, p.4 defines CALL as “learners learning language in any context with, through, and around computer
technologies”. Egbert puts an important emphasis in the definition of CALL, which is the context. He notes that CALL takes place in many different places in
addition to classrooms since it might happen more in homes, libraries, and computer cafés than in formal education contexts. In line with this, Peacock
2013 adds that technologies have started to change how English is learned in the c
lassroom. He claims that “the digital revolution in learning now threatens to undermine the classroom completely as a
place of study” Peacock, 2013, 2. This is related to the existences of mobile devices that gains credibility and popularity
every day, thus allowing people to learn English not only in the classroom, but everywhere.
Figure 2.2 The Evolution of CALL Wang and Cadiero-Kaplan, 2004, p.145
As time passed by, CALL changed and developed. Wang and Cadiero- Kaplan 2004, p.144 state that
“chronologically, CALL has evolved from a behavioristic model, to communicative and integrative models, to include finally a
mor e collaborative approach”. As cited in Wang and Cadiero-Kaplan 2004,
Delcloque 2002 and Warschauer 2002 argue that CALL evolution represented computer technology developments together with the evolution of linguistic and
instructional theories of language acquisition. Meanwhile, Warschauer 2000, as cited in Wang and Cadiero-Kaplan 2004, believes that the development of
technology and shifts of pedagogy in language learning influenced the development in CALL.
The advances in educational computer applications these days have provided numerous resource for language classroom Brown, 2001. Warschauer
and Healy as cited in Brown, 2001 summarize the benefits of integrating a computer component into language instructions. Those benefits are listed as
follows. 1. multimodal practice with feedback
2. individualization in a large class 3. pair and small-group work on projects, either collaboratively or
competitively 4. the fun factor
5. variety in the resources available and learning styles used 6. exploratory learning with large amounts of language data
7. real-life skill-building in computer use
Warschauer and Healy as cited in Brown, 2001, p.145
According to Egbert and Hanson-Smith 2007, teachers do not need a discrete theory of CALL to understand the role of technology in the classroom.
Instead, a clear theory of SLA and the implication for the learning environment serves this goal which is to understand the role of technology. Thus, Egbert and
Hanson-Smith 2007 propose eight conditions for optimal language learning environments. Those conditions are 1 learners have opportunities to interact and
negotiate meaning, 2 learners interact in the target language with an authentic audience, 3 learners are involved in authentic tasks, 4 learners are exposed to
and encouraged to produce varied and creative language, 5 learners have enough time and feedback, 6 learners are guided to attend mindfully to the learning
process, 7 learners work in an atmosphere with an ideal stressanxiety level, and 8 learner autonomy is supported.
The first condition of optimal language learning environment is that learners have opportunities to interact and negotiate meaning. This condition
suggests that learners need to interact with other people. This is important since learning is a social process. Chapelle 2003 has summarized three types of
interaction along with the benefits from three perspectives. The summary is presented in the following table.
Table 2.1 Benefits of Three Types of Interaction from Three Perspectives Chapelle, 2003, p.56
Basic types of interactions
Perspectives on the value of interaction Interaction
hypothesis Sociocultural
theory
Depth of processing
theory
Inter- between people
Negotiation of meaning
Co-constructing meaning
Prompting attention to
language
between person and computer
Obtaining enhanced input
Obtaining help for using
language Prompting
attention to language
Intra- within the
person‟s mind Attending to
linguistic form Stimulating
internal mental voice
Cognitive processing of
input
The second condition suggests that learners need to interact with authentic audience. In this case, the audiences could be teachers, peers, or other people who
can negotiate meaning in the target language. The third condition claims that learners should be involved in authentic tasks. Thus, it suggests that the activities
in the task should be meaningful with a purposeful communication. As cited by Egbert et al. 2007, p.6
, Vygotsky 1978 mentioned that “learners grow into an activity that has meaning for them”. The forth condition suggests that learners
should be exposed to and encouraged to produce varied and creative language. It implies that learners need to have various tasks with various input of language.
The fifth condition mentions that learners should have enough time and feedback. Time and feedback are believed to facilitate the formulation of ideas. Teachers
can provide explicit, appropriate, or individualized feedback to help learners reach PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
the task goals. The sixth condition is that learners are guided to attend mindfully to the learning process. As cited by Egbert et al. 2007, p.7, Salomon 1990
claims tha t “learners must be motivated to take the opportunities presented to
them and to be cognitively engaged as they perform them”, and this is what is called as mindful. The seventh condition is learners work in an atmosphere with
an ideal stressanxiety level. This suggests teachers need to provide a more learning-center environment. Peyton 1990b in Egbert et al 2007, p.7 adds that
“more control to the learner removes the confounds of teacher, learner, school personalities, styles, and goals”. The last condition suggests that learner autonomy
should be supported. This can be facilitated by setting a learner-center environment. However, modeling, feedback, and scaffolding from teachers remain
necessary here. In terms of the learner‟s role in CALL environment, Opp-Beckman in
