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Figure 2 Yalden’s Language Program Development Yalden, 1987: 88
c. Borich’s Model
The writer also found other information which is related to the instructional activity. The model, proposed by Borich 1996: 111, starts with the answers to the
following questions: 1 Which aims and goals should you try to achieve?
2 To which learner needs should you direct your instruction? 3 What should you teach, and in what ways can you structure the content to produce
maximum learning for instance, by establishing consequences making transitions, by highlighting important points and interweaving themes?
4 How can you orchestrate various teaching methods to meet the objectives for instance, question and answer, discussion, review and practice?
5 What instructional media and materials should you use to deliver the content and assess whether it has been learned?
6 On what basis should you revise the instruction? For each question, there are many alternatives. Selecting an instructional goal,
organizing content for maximum learning and retention, selecting instructional methods and materials, and assessing the learners, all require planning skills that
must reduce the alternatives to the most practical and effective ones. Borich 1996:
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105-113 names the stages the “planning process”. He applies four stages in designing an instructional material. They are:
1 Gaining knowledge of some inputs According to Borich, the first stage in the instructional material development is
gaining knowledge of some inputs. The four primary inputs to the planning process are stated as follows:
• aims and goals, reflected by national and state policies and legislation,
school district curriculum guide, and adapted textbooks and materials •
learner characteristics and individual differences, reflected by the learners’ attitude and achievement, personality traits anxiety, learning style, and self-
concept, peer influence, and home and family life •
knowledge of academic discipline and grade level curriculum, reflected by content organization such as general-to-detailed, simple-to-complex,
abstract-to-concrete, ordering of priorities such as connections and transitions among and between parts, major and minor themes such as most
important and or least important, and content-specific facts, rules, concepts, and principles
• knowledge of teaching methods, reflected by key and helping behaviors
such as lesson clarity, instructional variety, task orientation, and learners’ engagement in the learning process at moderate-to-high rates of success,
pacing, mode of presentation, class arrangement, classroom arrangement, and selection and use of the textbooks, media, and materials.
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2 Generating alternatives It is very important to determine the appropriate content and methods to use with
the learners. The first step is about choosing among different instructional goals to select the learners’ characteristics, to which the instruction will be tailored.
Second, it deals with organizing the content and at last, the designer selects teaching method and instructional materials.
3 Recognizing value assumptions The goals, learning needs, organization, and methods must be matched up. In this
step, the goals must be matched with the learning needs, and then both of them must be tied to a specific organizational pattern and instructional arrangement to
make the best “goal- learning need-organization- method” match. Borich also
states that the objectives are organized into cognitive behaviors development of intellectual abilities and skills, affective behaviors development of attitudes,
beliefs, and values, and psychomotor behaviors coordination of physical
movements and bodily performance. One of the most important results of
prioritizing the goal- learning need-organizatio n-method matches is that the value assumptions will be recognized as the combination of the implied methods.
Matching and prioritizing are planning activities that encourage learners to actively consider consequences of certain decisions.
4 Revising alternatives In this step, the basis used to revise an instruction should be considered.
Feedback from the observation and assessment is an important input to the planning process. Sensitivity of these data provides the most necessary means of
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monitoring the consequences of the instructional decisions, and the most effective means of revising them.
Add new data about Expand set of Revise match,
inputs , as needed alternatives, as as needed needed
Figure 3 Borich’s Stages of the Planning Process Borich, 1996: 114
5. The Competence-Based Curriculum for Junior High School