10
6. Traditional Grammar: A term often used to summarize the range of
attitudes and methods found in the period of grammatical study before the advent of linguistics science.
In addition, the following are the other types of grammar that was found by the writer from internet, there are ten types of grammar;
9
1. Comparative Grammar: The analysis and comparison of the
grammatical structures of related languages. 2.
Generative Grammar: The rules determining the structure and interpretation of sentences that speakers accept as belonging to the
language. 3.
Mental Grammar : The generative grammar stored in the brain that allows a speaker to produce language that other speakers can
understand. 4.
Pedagogical Grammar: Grammatical analysis and instruction design for second language students.
5. Performance Grammar: a description of the syntax of English as it is
actually used by speakers in dialogues. 6.
Reference Grammar: A description of the grammar of a language, with explanations of the principles governing the construction of
words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. 7.
Theoretical Grammar: The study of the essential components of any human language.
8. Traditional Grammar: The collection of prescriptive rules and
concepts about the structure of the language. 9.
Transformational Grammar: A theory of grammar that accounts for the constructions of a language by linguistic transformations and
phrase structures. 10.
Universal Grammar: The system of categories, operations and principles shared by all human languages and considered to be
innate.
Based on various types above, it can be concluded that all types of grammar have their own point of view. However, they are concerned with their
own aims and functions.
B. Reported Speech
1. Meanings of Reported Speech
Reported speech refers to reproducing the idea of another person’s words. Not all of the exact words are used: verb forms and pronoun may change.
10
9
http:www.grammar.about.com 2 November 2009
10
Betty Schrampfer Azar, Fundamental of English Grammar, UK: Prentice Hall, 1992, 2
nd
ed, p.366.
11
Michael Swan stated in Practical English Usage that reported speech was to quote somebody’s words or thoughts without quoting the exact words that had
been used and connected it more closely to our own sentence.
11
Betty Schramper Azar stated in Understanding English Grammar, “Reported Speech refers to using a noun clause to report what someone has
said.”
12
A .J. Thompson and A.V. Martinet stated in A Practical English Grammar, “In indirect speech we give the exact meaning of a remark or a speech,
without necessarily using the speaker’s exact words.”
13
Reported Speech also called Indirect Speech is used to communicate what someone else said, but without using the exact words.
14
It can be known from several definitions above that reported speech is to quote somebody’s idea or thoughts without exactly repeating the exact word
produced by the speaker.
2. The Kinds of Speech
When one wishes to report what someone else says or has said thinks or has thought or what one said or thought on a previous occasion oneself; two ways
are open to one, either to give the exact words: direct speech, or to adapt the words according to the circumstances in which they are new quoted: indirect
speech.
15
In other word, there are two main ways of reporting people’s words, thoughts, and beliefs:
a. Direct Speech
It may be given the exact words more or less that were said, or imagine that were thought. This kind of structure is called “direct speech”
11
Michael Swan, Practical English Usage, Oxford University Press, 1980, p. 533.
12
Betty Schrampfer Azar, Understanding And...,p. 275.
13
A.J. Thompson and A.V. Martinet, A Practical English Usage, New York: Oxford University Press, 1986, 4
th
ed, p.269.
14
http:www.usingenglish.comglossaryreported-speech.html , 2 November 2009
15
Otto Jespersen, Essentials English Grammar, London: George Allen Unwin Ltd Publisher, 1954, p.260.
12
Direct speech conveys exactly what someone has said, often to dramatize and to create sense immediacy. It is found in newspaper reports, fiction, and oral
narratives.
16
Example:
So he said, ‘I want to go home,’ and just walked out. Did she say, ‘What do you want?’
17
It uses quotation marks when it quotes direct speech. Single quotation marks ‘...’ are more common in British English, and double quotation marks
“...” in American English.
18
In direct speech, usually the words quoted are introduced by one of the
words say or think, put before the quotation. In writing, quotation marks ‘...’ or
“...” are used. In literary writing, a large number of other verbs are used to add variety and to give additional information; for example, ask, exclaim, suggest,
reply, cry, reflect, suppose, grunt, snarl, hiss, and whisper.
b. Indirect Speech
It can be made a speaker’s words or thoughts part of his sentence, using conjunction e.g. that, and changing pronouns, tenses and other words where
necessary. This kind of structure is called ‘indirect speech’ or ‘reported speech’
.
19
Example:
So he said that he wanted to go home, and just walked out. Did she just ask what I wanted?
Commas are not put before that, what, where, etc in indirect speech structures.
Example:
Everybody realised that I was a foreigner.
Not Everybody realised that,..
16
Martin Parrot, Grammar for English Language Teacher, London: Cambridge University Press, 2000, p.217.
17
Michael Swan, Practical English Usage, Oxford University Press, 1995, p.500.
18
Michael Swan, Practical English..., p. 471.
19
Michael Swan, Practical English..., p. 501.
13
Reported speech is used when it is interested not in the words that someone has chosen, but in the essential information they conveyed. It is often
used far fewer words to report this than were originally spoken. Reported speech is found in newspaper reports, fiction, talking, or writing about conversation,
reports, articles or speeches that have been heard or read.
20
In reported speech, the tenses, word-order, pronouns and other words may be different from those in the original sentence.
21
Example:
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
He said, ‘I am going home.’ He said he was going home. ‘Is it raining?’ He asked if it was raining.
He said ‘I love you.’ He said he loved me. To indicate that is quoting or reporting what someone has said or thought
by using a reporting verb. Every reporting clause contains a reporting verb.
22
The
most neutral and most common verbs to use to introduce what are reported are say and tell, and choosing between these verbs often poses a problem to learners. Say
is never followed by an indirect object e.g. him, us, them, my sister whereas it
has to use an indirect object after tell. It is better to choose to tell when to draw
attention specifically to the person who is being addressed. Example:
He said that he was ill. He told me that he was ill.
23
Here is a list of reporting verbs which can be used to report what people say:
24
Table .2.1 The List of Reporting Verbs
Acknowledge Add
Admit Advise
Agree Concede
Confess Confirm
Continue Convince
Imply Inform
Inquire Insists
Instruct Predict
Proclaim Promise
Propose Reassure
Say Scream
Shout Shriek
State
20
Martin Parrot, Grammar for..., p.217.
21
Michael Swan, Practical English..., p. 533-534
22
John Sinclair, Collins Cobuild Grammar, London: Harper Collins, 1990. P.314.
23
Martin Parrot, Grammar for English..., p. 217-218.
24
John Sinclair, Collins Cobuild ..., p.315
14
Announce Answer
Argue Ask
Assert Assure
Beg Begin
Boast Call
complain Cry
Decl are
Decree Demand
Deny Describe
Direct Discuss
Dispute Enquire
Explain Invite
Maintain Mention
Mumble Murmur
Muse Mutter
Note Notify
Object observe
Order Recall
Recite Recommend
Record Refuse
Remark Remind
Repeat Reply
Report Request
Stipulate Storm
Suggest Swear
Teach Tell
Threaten Urge
Vow Warn
Yell
The following table is some common changes in expression of time in indirect speech:
25
Table.2.2 The Common Changes of Expression Time
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
Today That day
Yesterday The day before
The day before yesterday Two days before
tomorrow The next daythe following day
The day after tomorrow In two days’ time
Next weekyear, etc. The following weekyear, etc.
Last weekyear, etc. The previous weekyear, etc.
A year, ago, etc. A year before the previous year
But if the speech is made and reported on the same day these time changes are not necessary.
Example: At breakfast this morning he said, ‘I’ll be very busy today’
At breakfast this morning he said that he would be very busy today.
25
A.J. Thomson A.V. Martinet. A Practical English..., p.274-275
15
3. The Transformational Rules from Direct Question into Reported
Question a.
Reported Question
As mentioned in chapter one, the writer limited her study only in reported question. Reported question is used when people want to relate a question that
someone has asked.
26
As well as reporting what someone says or thinks, it can be also reported a question that one asks or wonders about.
John Sinclair stated in Collins Cobuild Grammar, “Questions in report structures are sometimes called reported question or indirect questions.
27
There are two main types of report structure for questions. One type of
questions is called a ‘yesno’ question. These are questions which can be answered
simply with ‘yes’ or ‘no’. The other type of question is called a ‘WH’-question. These are questions in which someone asks for information about an event or
situation. ‘WH’ questions cannot be answered with ‘yes’ or ‘no’.
28
The most common verbs for reporting questions are ask and want to know. Ones also use
inquiry for formal question and wonder for ask oneself.
29
When one reports a ‘yesno questions, heshe uses an ‘if’-clause beginning with the conjunction ‘if’, or a ‘whether’-clause beginning with the conjunction
‘whether’. ‘If’ uses when the speaker has suggested one possibility that may be
true. Meanwhile, ‘whether’ uses when the speaker has suggested one possibility
but has left open the question of other possibilities.
30
There are a few verbs which can be used before ‘if’-clauses or ‘whether’- clauses, because they refer to being unsure of facts or to discovering facts.
Here is a list of other verbs which can be used before ‘if’-clauses and
‘ whether’-clauses:
31
26
http:. www.bbc.co.uk
25 april 2010
27
John Sinclair, Collins Cobuild..., p. 322.
28
John Sinclair, Collins Cobuild..., p. 323.
29
Mark Folley Diane Hall, Longman advanced Learner’s Grammar, Pearson Education Limited:2003, p. 114.
30
John Sinclair, Collins Cobuild..., p. 323
31
John Sinclair, Collins Cobuild..., p. 324
16
Table.2.3 The Verbs Used Before ‘If’ and ‘Whether’-Clauses
Discover Remember See Know Say
Wonder
On the other hand, when ones report a ‘WH’ question, heshe uses a ‘WH’
word at the beginning of the reported clause. There are few verbs which can be
used before clauses beginning with ‘WH’ words, because they refer to knowing,
learning, or mentioning one of the circumstances of an event or situation.
Here is a list of verbs which can be used before clauses beginning with ‘WH’-
words.
32
Table.2.4 The Verbs Used before Clauses Beginning ‘WH’-words
Decide Forget Realize Suggest
Describe Guess Remember Teach
Discover Imagine Say
Tell Discuss Know See Think
Explain Learn Wonder Understand
And the following are the form of grammar for reported question:
33
1
Normal word order is used in reported questions, that is, the subject comes before the verb, and it is not necessary to use do or did:
Example: “Where does Peter live?”
She asked him where Peter lived. 2
Yes no questions: This type of question is reported by using ask + if whether + clause:
Example: Do you speak English?
He asked me if I spoke English.
32
John Sinclair, Collins Cobuild..., p. 324
33
http:www.edufind.com 2 November 2009
17
Are you British or American?
He asked me whether I was British or American. 3
Question words: This type of question is reported by using ask
+question word + clause. The clause contains the question, in normal word order and with the necessary tense change.
Example: What is your name? he asked me.
He asked me what my name was.
How old is your mother?” he asked.
He asked how old her mother was. Note: When someone reports questions with ‘who, what or which’ +
to be+ complement, the verb ‘to be’ can come before or after the
complement.
34
The other changes to note when one reports the question is that there is no inversion or change of the word order of subject and verb in reported speech and
no dodoesdid when the question is reported.
35
On the contrary, do can be used in
indirect negative questions, as a negative auxiliary.
36
In addition, when someone reports another person’s words in indirect
question, heshe often has to change the tenses and pronouns used in the direct
question. Here is a list of characteristic changes in tense forms:
37
Table.2.5 The Characteristics Changes in Tense
Direct Question IndirectReported Question
Simple Present
‘What is the matter?’
Simple Past She asked me what the matter
was Simple Past
Past Perfect
34
http:www.eslbase.com 12 Desember 2009
35
http:www.bbc.co.ukworldservicelearningenglishgrammarlearnit , 2 November 2009
36
Michael Swan, Practical English.., p. 506.
37
http:www.athabascau.cacoursesengl . 12 Desember 2009
18
‘How did you make this
salad?’
I wondered
how she had made that salad.
Present Perfect
‘Have you bought a new outfit for it?’
Past Perfect She wondered whether I had bought
a new outfit for it.
Present Progressive
‘Where are you going?’
Past Progressive I wanted to know where she was
going. Future
‘Will you be in Paris on Monday?’
Conditional He asked me if I would be in Paris on
Monday.
Here is some commons change in pronouns and possessive adjectives:
38
Table.2.6 The Changes of Pronoun and Possessive Adjectives
Direct Question IndirectReported Question
I He or she
Me Him or her
My His or her
we They
Then, pronoun and possessive adjectives, of the 1
st
and 2
nd
persons, are all turned into the 3
rd
persons in the indirect form, as follows:
39
a.
I, you, singular my, your turn into he, she, his, her, their.
b.
We, you plural, our, your turn into they, their.
In addition, when one reports the question, the word order is generally the same as that of statements.
40
Reported questions do not have the same word –
38
Martin Parrot, Grammar For English..., p. 223.
39
Llewelyn Tipping A. Menezes, Marticulation..., p.108.
40
Martin Parrot, Grammar For English..., p. 223.
19
order auxiliary verb before subject as direct questions often have. Do and Question mark are not used.
41
Example: ‘Do you have the time, please?’
Someone asked me if I had the time
C. The Students’ Difficulties in Learning Reported Question
1. Definitions of learning
Learning is a relatively permanent influence on behavior, knowledge, and thinking skills, which comes about through experience.
42
According to Cronbach in his book Educational Psychology he stated, “Learning is shown by a change in behavior as a result of experience”. It is as
Harold Spears stated “Learning is to observe, to read, to imitate, to try something themselves, to listen, to follow direction”.
43
Learning is a change in organism due to experience which can affect the organism’s behavior.
44
According to Wittig in his book Psychology of Learning he defined learning as “Any relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavioral
repertoire that occurs as a result of experience.”
45
Learning is acquiring new knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, preferences or understanding, and may involve synthesizing different types of
information. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals and some machines. Progress over time tends to follow learning curves.
46
In addition, there is another of many experts in psychology who have defined the definition of learning as follows:
47
41
Michael Swan, Practical English.., p. 536.
42
John W. Santrock, Educational Psychology, McGraw-Hill: 2004, p. 210.
43
Drs. Sumardi Suryabrata Phd, Psikologi Pendidikan, Raja Grafindo Persada: 2008, p.230
44
Drs. Muhibbin syah M.Ed, Psikologi Pendidikan Suatu Pendekatan Baru, Bandung: Remaja Rosdakarya, 1995, p. 89.
45
Drs. Muhibbin syah M.Ed, Psikologi Pendidikan..., p.89-90.
46
http:en.wikipedia.orgwikiLearning
47
http:www.masbow.com200907pendapat-para-ahli-psikologi-dalam.